LESSON ONE
The sounds of Quenya.
Pronunciation and accentuation.

GENERAL REMARKS
Quenya as an actual entity in our own world exists primarily as a written language: Quenya enthusiasts tend to be widely scattered and must generally share their compositions via some written medium only (indeed I shall normally refer to users of Quenya as "writers" rather than "speakers"). Nonetheless, any student should obviously know what pronunciation Tolkien imagined, as well as his intentions can be approximated now.
There exist a very few recordings of Tolkien himself reading Quenya texts. In a late TV interview, Tolkien writes out and pronounces the greeting elen síla lúmenn' omentielvo. More notably, he made two different recordings of Namárië (sung and spoken). The spoken version is also available on the net: http://www.salon.com/audio/2000/10/05/tolkien_elvish/index.html (under "Poem in Elvish"). A few lines of this version of Namárië differ from their LotR counterparts: The recorded version has inyar únóti nar ve rámar aldaron / inyar ve lintë yulmar vánier instead of yéni únótimë ve rámar aldaron! / yéni ve lintë yuldar (a)vánier as in LotR. The recording was made before the book was published (and hence before the final revisions). A much later recording, with the same text as in the book, also exists. I have not heard it, so I cannot comment further.
The very few extant recordings are interesting, but they are not our chief source of information. Most of what we know about Quenya pronunciation is based on Tolkien's written notes about how his languages should be pronounced, predominantly the information provided in LotR Appendix E. (Indeed Tolkien's actual pronunciation in the recordings is not always quite flawless according to his own technical descriptions, but then he was not a native speaker of Quenya.)
Since pronunciation is important, we will discuss the available information in some detail, even if this first lesson has to be much longer than the following ones.

Any natural language has a phonology, a set of rules defining what sounds are used, how they vary and behave, and how they can be combined. This goes for any well-made invented language as well. Quenya is most definitely not a haphazard jumble of sounds; Tolkien carefully constructed its phonology – both as an evolving entity (classical Quenya gradually developing from Primitive Elvish) and as a "fixed" form (defining the kind of Quenya that was used as a language of lore and ceremony in Middle-earth). Tolkien had Pengolodh, the sage of Gondolin, observe that Elvish tongues tended to use relatively few sounds – "for the Eldar being skilled in craft are not wasteful nor prodigal to small purpose, admiring in a tongue rather the skilled and harmonious use of a few well-balanced sounds than profusion ill-ordered" (PM:398). None of the sounds used in Quenya are particularly exotic from a European viewpoint, but they are combined in an exquisitely tidy manner. Compared to Tolkien's Elvish, many "real" languages indeed appear rather messy.

BASIC TERMS
Let us get some basic terms into place (people with linguistic training need not spend much time on this section). The sounds of any language can be divided into two broad categories, vowels and consonants. The vowels are sounds made by letting the air stream "freely" through the mouth: Different vowels are produced by modifying the position of the tongue and the lips, but the stream of air is not directly obstructed. If one draws out various vowels, pronouncing aaaaa... or eeeee... or ooooo...,  it is easy to feel how the air streams quite unhindered though the mouth: One merely configures the tongue and lips to "shape" the desired sound. Vowels can be more or less "open" or "closed": You only have to notice the position of the tongue and lower jaw when pronouncing aaah... as contrasted with their position when you pronounce ooooh... to understand what is meant by this. The vowel a (as in English part) is the most open, while the vowel u (as in English rude) is the most closed. Other vowels fall between. Vowels can also be more or less "rounded", mainly depending on the position of the lips; the vowel u (as just described) is said to be rounded because it is pronounced with the lips pouted. A vowel like o (as in English sore) is actually pronounced much like the a of part, but o is rounded and a is not – making the vowels audibly distinct.
When pronouncing vowels, the stream of air is only modified (by means of devices like the ones just described). It is never actually "hindered". In the case of the consonants, the air is however more actively obstructed. Thus, Tolkien can inform us that one early Elvish term for consonant was tapta tengwë or just tapta, meaning "impeded element" or "impeded one" (VT39:7). In the most "extreme" cases the stream of air may even be completely halted for a moment: This is easily perceived in the case of a consonant like p, which is pronounced by bringing the lips into contact, momentarily cutting off the stream of air from the lungs and allowing pressure to build up inside the mouth. Then the lips are suddenly parted again, releasing the air in a small explosion – and this explosion constitutes a p. Such plosive consonants include t, p, k and their counterparts d, b, g (sc. hard g as in gold, not as in gin). They are all formed by halting and then suddenly releasing the air various places in the mouth. Instead of halting the air completely one may also let it "fizzle through" a small opening, as when f is pronounced by forcing the air out between the lower lip and the upper teeth; such "friction" sounds are called fricatives (or spirants) and include consonants like f, th, v. And there are yet other options on how to manipulate the stream of air, such as rerouting it through the nose to produce nasal consonants like n or m. 
	The concept of voicing should also be understood. Humans (and, it would seem, Elves) come with a kind of buzzing device installed in their throats, namely the vocal chords. By making the vocal chords vibrate, one may add "voice" to the stream of air before it enters the speech organs proper. The presence or lack of such voicing is what distinguishes sounds like v vs. f. If one draws out a sound like ffff...and suddenly turns it into vvvv... instead, one will feel the "buzzer" in the throat kicking in (put a finger on your glottis – what in men is called the "Adam's apple", less protuberant in women – and you will actually feel the vibration of the vocal chords). In principle, the device of voicing could be used to double the number of sounds we are able to produce, since they could all be pronounced either with vibration in the vocal chords (as voiced sounds) or without such vibration (as unvoiced sounds). In practice, most of the sounds of speech do not appear in unvoiced versions. Many sounds would barely be perceptible without the voicing (n, for instance, would be reduced to little more than a weak snort). Normally all vowels are voiced as well, certainly so in Quenya (though in Japanese, vowels may lose their voicing in certain environments). But I have already referred to d, b, g as the "counterparts" of t, p, k; they are counterparts in the sense that the former are voiced and the latter are not. One characteristic feature of Quenya (at least the Noldorin dialect) is the very limited distribution of the voiced plosives d, b, g; they occur solely in the middle of words, and then only as part of the consonant clusters nd/ld/rd, mb, and ng. Some speakers also pronounced lb instead of lv. (Possibly Tolkien imagined different rules for the poorly attested Vanyarin dialect of Quenya: The Silmarillion refers to a lament called Aldudénië made by a Vanyarin Elf; this word has puzzled researchers since the middle d occurs in a position that would be quite impossible in Noldorin Quenya.)
	Syllables: Made up of vowels and consonants, speech is not an undifferentiated outburst of sound. Rather it is perceived to be organized into rhythmic units called syllables. The shortest possible words are necessarily monosyllabic, having only one syllable – like English from or its Quenya equivalent ho. Words of more than one syllable, polysyllabic ones, form longer strings of rhythmic "beats". A word like faster has two syllables (fas-ter), a word like wonderful has three (won-der-ful), a word like geography has four (ge-og-ra-phy), and so on – though obviously we can't go much further before the words would be felt to be impractically long and difficult to pronounce. Some oriental languages, like Vietnamese, show a great preference for monosyllabic words. But as is evident from the English examples just quoted, European languages often employ longer words, and Tolkien's Quenya makes extensive use of big mouthfuls (as does Finnish). Consider words like Ainulindalë or Silmarillion (five syllables: ai-nu-lin-da-lë, sil-ma-ril-li-on). An uninflected Quenya word typically has two or three syllables, and this number is often increased by adding inflectional endings, or by compounding.

THE SOUNDS OF QUENYA  
In Quenya, the basic vowels are a, e, i, o, u (short and long). They may also be combined into diphthongs, groups of two basic vowels pronounced together as one syllable: There are three diphthongs in -i (ai, oi, ui) and three in -u (au, eu, iu, though the diphthongs eu and iu are quite rare). The consonants of Third Age Quenya may be listed as c (= k), d, f, g, gw, h, hy, hw, l, ly, m, n, nw, ny, p, qu, r, ry, s, t, ty, v, y and w (this listing is not wholly uncontroversial; the consonant system of Quenya can be plausibly analyzed in more than one way). In Elvish writing, the Tengwar orthography also upholds the distinction between some consonants that by the Third Age had come to be pronounced alike and thus merged altogether (þ merging with s, while initial ñ fell together with n – see the discussion of spelling conventions). In the transcription and spelling employed in this course, the former presence of "lost" distinct consonants is reflected in two cases only: hl and hr, that were originally unvoiced l and r, but later they merged with normal l, r (and are therefore not included on the list of Third Age Quenya consonants above). Thus we will spell, say, hrívë ("winter") in this way despite the fact that Tolkien imagined the typical Third Age pronunciation to be simply "rívë" (with a normal r).
Though the consonants hy, gw, hw, ly, nw, ny, ry, ty, and qu (and hr, hl) must here be written as two letters (as digraphs), they should evidently be taken as unitary sounds: Their pronunciation will be discussed in greater detail below. The digraphs in -w represent labialized consonants, while the digraphs in -y stand for palatalized consonants; again, see below for further discussion of these terms. It should be understood that qu is simply an aesthetic way of spelling what would otherwise be represented as cw (most people will agree that Quenya looks better than Cwenya), so qu, like nw, is a labialized consonant. When counting syllables one must remember that there is no actual vowel u in qu; "u" here stands for w. A word like alqua ("swan") thus has only two syllables: al-qua (= al-cwa). One must not think "al-qu-a" and conclude that there are actually three syllables. In Tengwar writing, qu is denoted by a single letter, and in most early sources, Tolkien also used the single letter q to represent it.
	Double consonants: Some consonants also occur in long or double versions; double vs. single consonants may be compared to long vs. short vowels. The "obvious" cases, sc. the double consonants directly represented in orthography, are cc, ff, ll, mm, nn, pp, rr, ss and tt (e.g. ecco "spear", colla "cloak", lamma "sound", anna "gift", appa- "to touch”,, yarra- "to growl", essë "name", atta "two"). The double consonant pp is very rare. The group ff is attested solely in the word effírië "death" (VT43:34), where the first f is changed from earlier t (et-fírië, literally "out-breathing”). Such assimilations can apparently produce double consonants that may never occur in unitary words.
 In the Note on Pronunciation appended to the Silmarillion, Christopher Tolkien noted: "Consonants written twice are pronounced long, thus Yavanna has the long n heard in English unnamed, penknife, not the short n in unaimed, penny." Words like ana "towards" vs. anna "gift", tyelë "ceases" vs. tyellë "grade", ata "again" vs. atta "two" should be audibly distinct. As for cc, tt, pp, Tolkien noted that such "double voiceless stops were slightly aspirated" (PE17:17). That is, they may sound a little like k + h, t + h, p + h (as in English backhand, outhouse, uphill). Words like ata "again" and atta "two" may thus be made to sound distinct by pronouncing the latter as att-ha, though the H should be rather weak (since Tolkien tells us that groups like tt etc. were only slightly aspirated).
 It is possible that some of the consonants written as digraphs must also be counted as double consonants when they occur between vowels; e.g. ny = long or double palatalized n (more on this below). 
	Consonant clusters (vs. single consonants): It is difficult to pronounce many sequential consonants, so the languages of the world generally confine themselves to relatively small groups (or "clusters") of consonants. The most typical word, from just about any language, is a series of vowels and consonants (single ones or relatively short consonant clusters) alternating – the "core" of each syllable usually being a vowel. Tolkien's Quenya is no exception; this language actually has quite restrictive rules for how consonants and vowels can be combined into syllables and longer words. Even so, consonant clusters are quite common, but they are not distributed as "freely" as in English. While English and for that matter Sindarin allow consonant clusters at the beginning of words, Quenya does not (SD:417-418). A word like scream, commencing with a cluster of no less than three consonants, would be quite impossible in Quenya. Tolkien noted that the name that the "Woses" or Wild Men had for themselves, Drughu, was adapted to Quenya as Rú (UT:385). Quenya could not preserve the initial cluster dr- of the original form of this loan-word (even apart from the fact that Quenya could not have d in this position). 
Quenya does allow a limited number of consonant clusters medially, between vowels in the middle of words; among "frequent" of "favoured" clusters Tolkien cited ld, mb, mp, nc, nd, ng, ngw, nqu, nt, ps, ts and x (for cs). Hence we have such typical Quenya-style words as Elda "Elf", lambë "tongue", tumpo "hump", ranco "arm" etc. Finally, at the end of words, only five single consonants may occur: only -l, -n, -r, -s, or -t is permitted in this position (Letters:425; however, most Quenya words end in a vowel). Consonant clusters or double consonants are not normally found at the end of words, though they may occur if a final vowel drops out (is elided) because the next word begins in the same or a similar vowel. Hence in LotR we have a "final" nn in the phrase lúmenn' omentielvo ("on the hour of our meeting"), but only because this is reduced from lúmenna omentielvo (this full form occurring in WJ:367 and Letters:424). The only genuine consonant cluster occurring at the end of a word seems to be nt used a specific grammatical ending (dual dative, to be discussed in later lessons) – e.g. ciryant "for a couple of ships", formed from cirya "ship". Tolkien's earliest "Qenya" experiments, as recorded in the Qenya Lexicon of 1915, were more liberal in this respect. "Qenya" allowed more final consonants and even final consonant clusters, but as LotR-style Quenya evolved in Tolkien's notes, he tightened up the phonology. Thus he gave the language a more clearly defined flavour.

PRONUNCIATION
Vowels: Quenya vowels are pure. For people who want to pronounce Elvish vowels with some degree of accuracy, Tolkien recommended Italian vowels as a model (as did Zamenhof for Esperanto, by the way). Speakers of English have an ingrained habit of blurring many vowels, especially when they are not fully stressed; hence in a word like banana it is typically only the middle A that comes out as a "proper" A-sound. The two other A's, that are not stressed, are typically made to sound like a blurred, obscure "reduction vowel" that linguists call a schwa (from a Hebrew word for nothingness; English textbooks sometimes prefer the spelling "shwa"). But in Quenya all vowels, in all positions, must be clearly and distinctly pronounced; any tendencies to "blur" them must be strongly resisted.
	As we remember, Quenya has both long and short vowels, the long ones being marked with an accent: á, é, ó, ú, í vs. short a, e, o, u, i. Long and short vowels must be kept apart and pronounced clearly distinct. Sometimes vowel length is the only thing that makes otherwise similar words distinct: for instance, ma with a short a may mean "something, a thing" (VT42:34), whereas má with a long á means "hand".
	Long á can be sounded as in English father: má "hand", nárë "flame", quáco "crow". However, English does not have anything corresponding to Quenya short a. It is absolutely necessary to master it, for short a is by far the commonest of Quenya vowels. Tolkien noted that it should be more "open" than the long á. What we want is a vowel that by its sound (or quality) is about midway between the a's of English father and English cat – but as for its length (or quantity), it should by all means be short as in the latter word. The vowel heard in Spanish padre will do. Speakers of English may pin down a short a by isolating the first part of the diphthong ai as in aisle. 
NOTE: If you have the original Star Wars movie available, listen carefully when Harrison Ford first appears about 45 minutes in and introduces himself as "Han Solo": Ford actually produces a nice Quenya-style short a in "Han", making this syllable sound as it would in Quenya words (e.g. hanu "a male" or handa "intelligent"; apparently there is even a Quenya word han "beyond"). But later in the SW movies, the vowel of "Han" is inconsistently pronounced either with a long a as in English father or with the vowel heard in English cat, which is precisely the vowel to be avoided in Quenya. Linguistic consistency was never the, ahem, force of Star Wars. By the way, do you remember Endor, the green moon where George Lucas placed his reinvented teddy bears in the third movie? Guess what the Quenya word for "Middle-earth" is! Lucas would surely say that his intention was to pay tribute to Tolkien...

UPDATED NOTE: With the appearance of the Peter Jackson trilogy, I can quote examples from these movies as well. In Jackson’s The Fellowship of the Ring,  good examples of short Elvish a occur in the Sindarin name Caradhras "Redhorn" as pronounced  by Christopher Lee ("Saruman") in the scene where his spying crows return to Isengard: "So, Gandalf, you try to lead them over Caradhras..." Lee also gets the short a's more or less right in a scene following shortly afterwards, when he stands on the top of Isengard reading a Quenya invocation: Nai yarvaxëa rasselya taltuva notto-carinnar... (but the last word sounds almost like cárinnar, the first vowel being long – after all, Chris Lee is not a native speaker of Quenya!) 

An extra challenge for speakers of English is to pronounce -a as a full vowel at the end of words. Where English orthography has a final -a, it is normally pronounced like a schwa. Contrast the English and the Spanish pronunciation of the final vowel in a name like Sara; in Spanish, the English-style reduction or "blurring" of the -a does not take place. In one very early source, Tolkien actually stated that "Qenya", like English, turned final, unaccented -a into a schwa ("as in English drama", QL:9), but there is nothing to suggest that this idea was still valid decades later when he wrote the LotR. Indeed even the early source just referred to has it that there was one important dialect of "Qenya" where the weakening of final -a did not take place. So speakers should try to pronounce a full a in all positions: neither of the a's in a word like anna "gift" should be pronounced as in the English name Anna.
Long é is another Quenya sound that does not occur in contemporary English. The long e of English became long i (like Quenya í) centuries ago – though because of this descent it is still often spelt ee, as in see. Quenya é has the value of German eh as in Mehr. The pronunciation of ai in English air at least approaches é, but this is really a short e followed by a schwa. Tolkien notes that long é should be closer than short e (see LotR Appendix E), so just lengthening the vowel heard in English end will not be quite sufficient. The quality of the vowel should be about midway between the vowels heard in English end and English see, but it should be long like the latter: nén "water", ré "day", ména "region".
Short e may be pronounced as in English end. In Quenya this sound also occurs in final position. Since word-final e is usually silent in English orthography, Tolkien often used the spelling ë in this position – and throughout this course, this spelling is employed consistently. This is only to remind English readers that in Quenya, this letter is to be distinctly pronounced. But since word-final e never occurs in spoken English, some speakers tend to substitute i or ey (following English practice in the rare cases of a final orthographic "e" being sounded, as when Jesse is pronounced "jessi", or karate is pronounced "karatey"). Quenya e should have the value described above in all positions. It must NOT be pronounced i, nor must there be a y-like sound creeping after it: lómë "night", morë "black", tinwë "sparkle".
Long í is pronounced as in English machine, that same as "ee" in English see: the Quenya word sí ("now") is similar in sound. Other examples include nís "woman" and ríma "edge". This long í must be noticeably longer than short i, which may be pronounced like in English pit: Titta "tiny", imbi "between", vinya "new". In one early source, Tolkien himself quoted the word pit as an example of short "Qenya" i (QL:8). Later writings suggest that the quality of the vowel-sound should be like the i of machine, in English often spelt "ee" – start with this sound and shorten it. (Before unvoiced stops, as in feet, "ee" may be quite short also in English – just make sure there is a distinction of length between i and í.) Notice that i is never pronounced ai as in English fine = "fain". (Quenya finë "larch" has two syllables, the vowels being those heard in pit [ideally a little closer] and pet, respectively.) Of course, this also goes for final -i (usually a plural ending). If the student will forgive another Star Wars reference, George Lucas' Jedi may be "jedai" = "jed-eye", but Tolkien's Quendi are most definitely not "quendai". In Quenya, final -i should rather be pronounced as in Iraqi, Mississippi.
Long ó may be pronounced more or less as in English sore, but preferably a little tenser and "closer" (midway between the vowel-sounds of English sore and English "oo" as in soon): mól "slave", tó "wool", óma "voice". Short o may be pronounced as in English for (when accented), or as in box. The quality of the latter vowel may be just a little too open and A-like according to Tolkien's descriptions. Yet this is the pronunciation he himself used in most cases in the recording of him reading Namárië; it should perhaps be attributed to his English accent. Some words with o: rondo "cave", olos "dream", tolto "eight". Of course, Quenya o is never pronounced "ow" as in English so, also; a word like tolto must NOT come out as "tol-tow". Neither must o ever be reduced to a schwa or dropped altogether; be especially mindful of the ending -on, often found in masculine names (and also in plural genitives like Silmarillion; see later lessons). "English-style" pronunciation of a name like Sauron would result in what a baffled Elf might try to represent in writing as Sór'n (or at best Sóren). The final -on should sound rather like the first syllable of English online, with the vowel fully intact even though it is unaccented in Sauron. In Jackson’s Fellowship, a very good pronunciation of this name occurs when Christopher Lee says: "Did you think a hobbit could withstand the will of Sauron?” For Elvish o’s, also notice how the same actor pronounces Mordor.  
Long ú is the vowel of English brute, in English often spelt "oo" as in fool: Númen "west", cú "crescent", yúyo "both". It must be distinctly longer than short u, which is pronounced somewhat like the vowel of English put (NOT like in English cut). Ideally, Quenya short u should be a little more "rounded" than the vowel of put; it should be simply a shorter version of the long ú or "oo" described above: Cundu "prince", nuru "death", ulundo "monster". Notice that Quenya u is never pronounced "yu" as in English union; ulundo should not become "yulundo".

Speakers of English must be especially mindful of their vowels when a combination vowel + r occurs. In the combinations ar, or, many speakers of English have a tendency to lengthen the vowel even where it should be short (and many would also let the r drop out, especially when it is followed by another consonant). But in Quenya words like narda ("knot") or lorna ("asleep"), the vowel before the r must be short, as indicated by the absence of the accent mark. It is not permissible to let the pronunciation drift towards "ná(r)da", "ló(r)na", no matter how tempting this is to people used to English speech-habits.
Where the groups er, ir, ur occur (e.g. in words like sercë "blood", tirno "watcher", turma "shield"), speakers of English must take care NOT to pronounce the vowels after the fashion of English serve, girl, turn. (I once had an English teacher who described the vowel of "girl" as one of the ugliest sounds of the English language. She taught English at university level, so she should know – though perhaps she wasn't wholly serious...) Short e, i, u should sound just as described above, wholly irrespective of the following r. In LotR Appendix E, Tolkien noted that er, ir, ur should sound, not as in English fern, fir, fur, but rather like air, eer, oor (that is, like it would be natural for a speaker of English to pronounce orthographic "air, eer, oor" – however, it should be understood that this would only be an approximation of the ideal pronunciation). In the Peter Jackson movie, the actors struggle to pronounce the final syllable of the Quenya name Isildur correctly, with variable results. In the flash-back scene where Elrond (played by Hugo Weaving) leads Isildur into Mount Doom and urges him to destroy the Ring, Weaving's pronunciation of the name Isildur is very good – following Tolkien's guidelines to the letter. 

Diphthongs: In addition to the "basic", unitary vowel-sounds discussed above (what linguists would call the monophthongs), we have the diphthongs – combinations of two basic vowels that are run together into one syllable, in many ways behaving like a unitary vowel for the purpose of word-building: The Quenya diphthongs are ai, au, eu, iu, oi, and ui.
	¤ The diphthong ai is the same that is heard in English aisle. It is NOT like the one in English mail, though English orthographic "ai" usually represents the latter sound (can anyone think of other exceptions than aisle?) The first syllable of faila "just, generous" must not pronounced like the English word fail, since Quenya ai always has the sound of English I, eye: Aica "fell, terrible", caima "bed", aira "holy". Of course, the first syllable of the latter word sounds nothing like English air!
¤ The diphthong au is pronounced as in German Haus, or more or less as the "ow" of English cow: aulë "invention", laurëa "golden", taurë "forest". It is never sounded as in English caught, aura (in which words "au" is pronounced rather like Quenya ó). In his "Note on Pronunciation" appended to the Silmarillion, Christopher Tolkien notes that the first syllable of Sauron should be like English sour, not English sore. (However, the diphthong in sour is in British English followed by a schwa – a faint reminiscence of the otherwise silent final r. This schwa should not be pronounced in Sauron.)
¤ The diphthong eu does not occur in English, but it is not dissimilar to the "o" of English so. The only difference is that while the first part of the diphthong is a schwa in English, it should be a normal e (as in end) in Quenya. In particular, some British upper-class pronunciations of English "o" as in so come close to Quenya eu (but the American pronunciation does not). Quenya examples: leuca "snake", neuma "snare", peu "pair of lips". This diphthong is not very common.
¤ The diphthong iu may be sounded like yu in English yule, according to the usual Third Age Pronunciation. Tolkien imagined that originally, it had rather been a "falling" diphthong like the other Quenya diphthongs, stressed on the first rather than the last element (LotR Appendix E). However, the Third Age pronunciation would be equally "valid" also within the mythos, and for speakers of English it is easier to achieve. This diphthong is in any case very rare; in the Etymologies it is only attested in a handful of words (miulë "whining, mewing", piuta "spit", siulë "incitement" and the group tiuca "thick, fat", tiuco "thigh" and tiuya- "swell, grow fat" – a few more examples of iu could be quoted from Tolkien's early "Qenya" material).
¤ The diphthong oi is easy, corresponding to English "oi" or "oy" as in oil, toy: coirëa "living", soica "thirsty", oira "eternal".
¤ The diphthong ui Tolkien sometimes compared to the sound occurring in English ruin. This is a rather surprising example, for surely the word "ruin" is not normally pronounced as containing a diphthong, but as two distinct syllables: ru-in. Rather think "ooy" as in the English phrase too young: huinë "shadow", cuilë "life", uilë "(long, trailing) plant". Notice that the combination qui does not contain this diphthong; this is just a more visually pleasing way of spelling cwi (e.g. orqui "Orcs" = orcwi).

All other groups of vowels are not diphthongs, but simply vowels belonging to separate syllables, to be pronounced distinctly. In linguistic terms, vowels that are in direct contact without forming diphthongs are said to be in hiatus. Primitive Elvish apparently did not have such combinations, at least not in the middle of words: Tolkien had Fëanor concluding that "our fathers...in building words took the vowels and parted them with the consonants as walls" (VT39:10). But some consonants had been lost in Quenya, so that vowels that were originally so "parted" had come into direct contact (VT39:6). In Quenya we even have polysyllabic all-vowel words like Eä (a name of the universe) or oa ("away"). The most frequent combinations of vowels in hiatus are ea, eo, ie, io, oa; each vowel should be sounded "by itself". Tolkien often emphasizes this fact by adding diaereses or "dots" to one of the vowels, and in the consistent spelling here imposed on the material, we regularly write ëa (Eä), ëo (Eö), oë. Thus there is no excuse for such mistakes as pronouncing ëa as in English heart or please, or oë as in canoe or foetus. (Other distortions are apparently also possible: Cate Blanchett simply reduced Eärendil to "Erendil" the one time her version of Galadriel pronounces this name in Jackson’s Fellowship: "I give you the light of E[ä]rendil, our most beloved star..." Can we have an extra vowel for the Director's Cut, please? Elijah Wood did better when Frodo says Aiya Eärendil Elenion Ancalima in the third movie.)
In this course we do not use the diaeresis in the combinations ie (except when final) and oa, but as indicated by the spelling ië and öa in certain Tolkien manuscripts, the vowels must be pronounced distinctly and not drawn together as in English piece (or tie), or English load. In accordance with this, Christopher Tolkien in the Note on Pronunciation that he appended to the Silmarillion indicates that the name Nienna is to be pronounced Ni-enna, not "Neena" as if ie were sounded as in English piece. (Immediately after the line in which she mangles the name Eärendil, Cate Blanchett pronounces the Quenya word namárië, "farewell". I'm glad to say that she did a better job with this word, getting the -ië more or less right!) Some words with vowels in hiatus: fëa "soul", lëo "shade", loëndë "year-middle" (the middle day of the year according to the Elvish calendar), coa "house", tië "path".

Consonants: Most Quenya consonants are easy to pronounce for people used to speaking a Western language. These points may be observed:
¤ C is always pronounced k, never s; indeed Tolkien does use the letter k rather than c in many sources. Celma "channel" or cirya "ship" must not come out as "selma", "sirya". (This goes for Sindarin spelling as well: When Celeborn is pronounced "Seleborn" in the Rankin/Bass animated version of LotR, it clearly shows that the moviemakers never made it to Appendix E.)
¤ In the groups hw, hy, hl, hr, the letter h is not to be pronounced separately. These are just digraphs denoting unitary consonants:
¤ What is spelt hl, hr was originally unvoiced l, r. That is, these sounds were pronounced without vibration in the vocal chords, resulting in what may be described as "whispered" versions of normal l, r. (If you can isolate the l of English please, you will have an unvoiced l – though in this case, it is just "incidentally" unvoiced because of the influence from the unvoiced plosive p immediately preceding it. English never has unvoiced l as an independent sound of speech, as Quenya originally did.) In Quenya, these sounds are quite rare; examples include hrívë "winter" and hlócë "serpent, dragon". However, Tolkien stated that by the Third Age, hr and hl had come to be pronounced as normal voiced r, l, though the spelling hl, hr apparently persisted in writing.
¤ What is spelt hw corresponds to English wh in dialects where this is still distinct from normal w (e.g., witch and which are audibly distinct words – American English, as well as northern British English, normally uphold this distinction, though it has been abandoned in the British Received Pronunciation). Put simply, hw is a (weak) version of the sound you make when you blow out a candle. Hw is not a very frequent sound in Quenya; this seems to be a quite complete list of the known words where it occurs: hwan "sponge, fungus", hwarin "crooked", hwarma "crossbar", hwermë "gesture-code", hwesta "breeze, breath, puff of air" (also as verb: hwesta- "to puff"), hwindë "eddy, whirlpool".
¤ What is spelt hy represents a sound that may occur in English, but that is not normally recognized as a distinct consonant in this language. Hy denotes what by a German term is often referred to as ich-Laut or "ich-sound", since it is exemplified by "ch" in the German word ich ("I"). To speakers of English it may sound much like sh (one imagines Kennedy training long and hard to avoid "Ish bin ein Berliner"). Still, as I said, a (weak) version of the sound in question may often be heard in English as well: In words like hew, huge, human, the h may be pronounced like an (obscure) hy. Cf. SD:418-419, where Tolkien states that in Quenya or "Avallonian", the sound hy is "approximately equivalent to...h in huge". In LotR Appendix E, Tolkien also pointed out that hy has the same relationship to y as hw (discussed above) has to normal w: one is unvoiced, the other voiced. So another way of arriving at hy is to start with the sound of y (as in you) and produce a voiceless, "whispered" variant of it. Once you have the sound pinned down, you only have to strengthen it; it should be pronounced with the same force as English sh: Hyarmen "south", hyalma "shell, conch", hyellë "glass". It seems that hy mostly occurs at the beginning of words; ahya- "change" is presently the sole known example of hy occurring between vowels in the middle of a word. However, h in the combination ht following certain vowels should also be pronounced like hy; see below. – In LotR Appendix E, Tolkien noted that speakers of Westron (the supposed "original language" of the Red Book, which Tolkien "translated" into English) often substituted the sound of sh for Quenya hy. Speakers of English who don't care about subtle phonological details may of course do the same, turning a word like hyalma into "shalma". This would be a pronunciation that existed also within the Middle-earth setting, though it was not quite like the proper Elvish pronunciation (and it does seem best to aim for the latter!) I guess many speakers of English would hardly be able to tell the difference, though. Incidentally, one can achieve a pretty good hy by starting from sh; just make sure that your tongue is not raised (you may press its tip against the lower teeth to be certain of that). If you try to pronounce sh with the tongue in this position, what comes out ought to sound like hy.
¤ Outside the groups hw, hy, hl, hr, the letter h does represent an independent sound, but it is pronounced somewhat differently in different positions. It seems that originally, Quenya h (at least where it comes from Primitive Elvish kh) was typically stronger than English h – that is, a "breath-h" as in high. In Fëanor's day it was apparently pronounced like ch in German ach or Scottish loch, or like Cyrillic X. (In phonetic writing, this sound is also represented as [x].) But later, at the beginning of words, this [x] was weakened and became a sound like English h. In LotR Appendix E, Tolkien informs us that the Tengwa letter for [x] was originally called harma; naturally this Tengwa was so called because the initial h of this word was an example of the sound the letter denoted, [x]. But when [x] in this position eventually turned into an English-style h, the Tengwa was renamed aha, for in the middle of words, [x] was not weakened. So we can extract these rules: at the beginning of words (before a vowel), the letter h is to be pronounced like English h. But in the middle of words, h is to be pronounced [x]: as between vowels in aha "wrath", and likewise before t in words like pahta "closed", ohta "war", nuhta- "to stunt". 
In one late source, Tolkien noted that "in Quenya and Telerin medial [x] eventually became h also in most cases" (VT41:9). It may therefore be permissible to pronounce even words like aha with an English-style breath-h. But the group ht must probably always be pronounced [xt]; the weaker breath-h would be barely audible in this position.
This rule needs one modification. Likely, h before t was originally pronounced [x] in all cases. Following any of the vowels a, o, and u, this pronunciation persisted, as in the examples pahta, ohta, nuhta- above. But following the vowels i and e, the original [x] turned into a sound similar to German ich-Laut (German may indeed be Tolkien's inspiration for this particular development in Quenya phonology). Thus in words like ehtë "spear" or rihta- "to jerk", h should be pronounced just like the hy described above. Again, Tolkien imagined that human (mortal) speakers of Westron had a tendency to substitute a sound like English sh and say "eshtë", "rishta" instead.
¤ Quenya l "represents more or less the sound of English initial l, as in let" (LotR Appendix E). Now why did Tolkien specify that Quenya l is to sound like an initial English l (regardless of its position in a Quenya word)? As Tolkien was well aware, British English l is pronounced somewhat differently in different positions. An initial l, as in let, is pronounced as a so-called "clear" l – and this is the kind of l that should be used in all positions in Quenya (as is also the case in other languages, like German). But when l is not initial, English in most cases employs a so-called "dark" l, which differs from the "clear" l in that the "dark" variant is pronounced by arching the back of the tongue upwards: Contrast the pronunciation of l in two words like let (clear l) and fill (dark l). Compared to the "clear" l, the "dark" l sounds lower pitched, but this sound is to be avoided in Quenya. This may be something of a problem to Americans, since their L's tend to be rather "dark" in all positions, even initially (at least as perceived by European ears). – Perfectionists should also observe another detail: In Letters:425, Tolkien mentioned l among the Quenya "dentals", sc. sounds that are pronounced with the tip of the tongue touching the (upper) teeth. English normally uses an alveolar l instead, that is, a sound pronounced with the tip of the tongue further back, above the teeth rather than touching them. This again makes for a somewhat "darker" sound. When pronouncing a Quenya l, one should make sure that that the tip of the tongue touches the teeth.
¤ Quenya n is like English n. Usually this sound had been n all along, but in some cases it represents older ng as in English king, ding (notice that there is no distinct g to be heard, despite the spelling). Unlike English, Quenya could also have this sound at the beginning of words. As mentioned in the discussion of spelling conventions, Tolkien sometimes used the letter ñ to represent this older ng, e.g. Ñoldor. In his letters, Tolkien in one case added a footnote to the word Noldor (so spelt), informing the recipient that the initial N was to be pronounced "ng as in ding" (Letters:176). This would however be the "archaic" pronunciation; people speaking Quenya in Frodo's day would simply say Noldor: LotR Appendix E clearly indicates that by the Third Age, initial ñ had come to be pronounced like a normal n, and therefore the Elvish letter for ñ "has been transcribed n". We have adopted the same system here, so the letter n in nearly all cases represents normal English n, regardless of its phonological history in Quenya. I say "in nearly all cases" because n is still pronounced ñ before c (= k), g and qu. This is not much of a problem, for it is natural for speakers of English and many other languages to use this pronunciation anyway. In a word like anca "jaw" the cluster nc is therefore pronounced like "nk" in English tank, and in a word like anga "iron" the ng should be sounded like "ng" in English finger. Notice that Quenya ng occurring in the middle of words should always be pronounced with an audible g (this also goes for the group ngw, as in tengwa "letter"). It is NOT just the simple ñ described above, the "ng" of English king, with no distinct g. (We are of course talking about a hard g here; Quenya ng must never be pronounced "nj" as in English angel, but always as in finger. The sound of "soft" g as in English gin does not occur in Quenya.)
¤ Quenya r "represents a trilled r in all positions; the sound was not lost before consonants (as in [British] English part)" (LotR Appendix E). English r is generally much too weak for Quenya. Its weakness is precisely the reason why it tends to drop out before consonants and at the end of words (except where the next word happens to begin in a vowel – and by analogy, some speakers of English even introduce an R-sound where a word that properly should end in a vowel comes before a word beginning in a vowel. That is when vanilla ice starts coming out as "vanillar ice" – or, if you like, "vanilla rice"! Of course, this must be avoided in Quenya.) Quenya r should be trilled, as in Spanish, Italian, Russian etc., or for that matter as in Scottish English. Certain subtleties of Tengwar spelling suggest that in Quenya, r was somewhat weaker immediately in front of consonants (as opposed to vowels) and at the end of words. Nonetheless, it should be a properly trilled, wholly distinct sound even in these positions: Parma "book", erdë "seed", tasar "willow", Eldar "Elves". The vowel in front of r should not be lengthened or otherwise affected. In Peter Jackson’s Fellowship, the actors portraying Gandalf and Saruman normally pronounce the name Mordor correctly, with trilled r's and short vowels (whereas Elijah Wood's "Frodo" invariably says Módó with no trace of any r's!) Mordor is Sindarin for Black Land, but by its form and pronunciation, the word could just as well be Quenya mordor = "shadows" or "stains" (the plural form of mordo).
 The uvular r that is common in languages like French and German should be avoided in Quenya, for LotR Appendix E states that this was "a sound which the Eldar found distasteful" (it is even suggested that this was how the Orcs pronounced R!)
¤ The consonant s should always be unvoiced, "as in English so, geese" (LotR Appendix E). In English, s is often voiced to z, even though orthography may still show "s". For instance, though the s of English house is unvoiced, it becomes voiced in the plural form houses (for this reason, Tolkien noted that he would have liked the spelling houzes better – see PM:24). When pronouncing Quenya, one should be careful not to add voice to s, turning it into z: Asar "festival", olos "dream", nausë "imagination". Third Age Exilic Quenya did not possess the sound z at all. (Tolkien did imagine that z had occurred at an earlier stage, but it had later turned into r, merging with original r. For instance, UT:396 indicates that the plural of olos "dream" was at one stage olozi, but later it became olori.) Where it occurs between vowels, s often represents earlier þ (more or less = th as in thin); the words asar and nausë mentioned above represent older aþar and nauþë and could be so spelt in Tengwar orthography.
¤ On v and w: We must assume that v and w are properly pronounced as in English vine and wine, respectively (but initial nw is strictly not n + w but simply a so-called labialized n; see below). There are some unclear points here, though. LotR Appendix E seems to indicate that in Third Age Quenya, initial w had come to be pronounced v: it is said that the name of the Tengwa letter vilya had earlier been wilya. Likewise, Tolkien indicated that the word véra ("personal, private, own") had been wéra in what he called "Old Quenya" (PM:340). In the Etymologies, the evidence is somewhat divergent. Sometimes Tolkien has primitive stems in W- yield Quenya words in v-, as when the stem WAN yields Quenya vanya- "go, depart, disappear". Sometimes he lists double forms, as when the stem WÂ (or WAWA, WAIWA) yields Quenya vaiwa and waiwa, both meaning "wind". Under the stem WAY Tolkien listed a word for "envelope" as "w- vaia", evidently indicating a double form waia and vaia (all of these examples are found in LR:397). In LR:398, there are further double forms, but in the case of the verb vilin ("I fly") from the stem WIL, Tolkien curiously changed it to wilin. Perhaps he suddenly decided to go for the "Old Quenya" spelling rather than actually rejecting one in favour of the other?
The weight of the evidence seems to be that at the beginning of words, w- had come to be pronounced as normal v- by the Third Age; where Tolkien listed double forms in w- and v-, the former is apparently to be taken as the more archaic form. However, I have not regularized the spelling on this point, though where Tolkien himself used or listed a form in v- rather than w- (either alone or as an alternative to w-), I will use the form in v- in this course. (This also goes for vilin!) It is possible, though, that according to the Third Age pronunciation all initial w's should be sounded as v, the original distinction between initial v and w having been lost in the spoken language. It is unclear whether or not Tolkien meant that this distinction was consistently upheld in Tengwar orthography (as when this writing upheld the distinction between þ and s even after both had come to be pronounced s). If so, the letter called (wilya >) vilya was still used for v representing older w, while another letter (vala) was used for v that had been v all along. – Other than at the beginning of words, the distinction between v and w was upheld even in the Third Age, except that the groups lw, rw were later pronounced lv, rv (PE17:129). 
¤ The letter y "is only used as a consonant, as y in E[nglish] Yes": Tolkien singled this out as one of the few major departures from Latin spelling in the spelling conventions he used for Quenya (Letters:176). The vowel y, like German ü or French "u" as in lune, does not occur in Quenya (though it is found in Sindarin). 

The question of aspiration
There is one uncertainty regarding the precise pronunciation the unvoiced stops c (= k), t, p: In English as well as some other languages, these sounds, when occurring before a vowel at the beginning of a word, are normally aspirated. That is, a h-like puff of breath is slipped in after them. In this position they are pronounced a little like genuine sequences k + h, t + h, p + h (as in the examples we have already cited: backhand, outhouse, uphill). The average speaker is not conscious of this at all, not really perceiving the extra h as a distinct sound: It is just the way k, t, p is "expected" to sound at the beginning of words. But in some languages, like French, Russian and (perhaps most importantly) Finnish, there is no such gratuitous h automatically following these consonants when they occur in certain positions.
Should Quenya t, p, c be aspirated as in English, or should they be pronounced as in French or Finnish? This question is not directly addressed anywhere in Tolkien's published writings. It may be observed that Quenya t, p, c descend from Primitive Elvish consonants that were certainly not aspirated, for in the primitive language they contrasted with distinct aspirated sounds: primitive th, ph, kh, which later became s, f, h in Quenya. (Cf. two wholly distinct primitive words like thaurā "detestable" and taurā "masterful" – the th of the first word should be sounded the way a speaker of English would most likely mispronounce the t of the latter! The t of taurā should actually be pronounced French-style, with no aspiration.) So were Quenya t, p, c still unaspirated, since they had been so in the primitive language?
Since the primitive aspirated sounds had been changed, adding aspiration to t, p, c would cause no confusion. It should be noted, though, that in the writing system devised by Fëanor, there were originally distinct letters for aspirated sounds: "The original Fëanorian system also possessed a grade with extended stems, both above and below the line [of writing]. These usually represented aspirated consonants (e.g. t + h, p + h, k + h)" (LotR Appendix E). However, these were not the letters used to spell Quenya t, p, c. So all things considered, I think Quenya t, p, c should ideally be pronounced without aspiration. For people who are used to automatically slip in a h-like puff of breath after these consonants it may be difficult to get rid of it, since they are not really conscious of its presence at all. A phonology teacher once advised me that one way of getting rid of the aspiration is to practice pronouncing t, p, c/k with a burning candle in front of your mouth; the trick is to pronounce these consonants without the flame of the candle flickering (because of the puff of breath that constitutes the aspiration).
The voiced counterparts of t, p and c/k, namely d, b and (hard) g respectively, are not aspirated in English. For this reason, people who are used to hearing the unvoiced sounds pronounced as aspirated variants may (wrongly) perceive unaspirated unvoiced plosives as their voiced counterparts. Pronounced without aspiration, Quenya words like tarya ("stiff"), parma ("book") or calma ("lamp") may sound a little like "darya, barma, galma" to speakers of English (speakers of French, Russian or Finnish would not be confused). When pronouncing such words, one must not introduce vibration in the vocal chords to produce actual voiced sounds d, b, g. – But I should add that the whole aspiration issue is not something a student needs to spend much time on; as I said, the exact pronunciation of Quenya t, p, c is nowhere addressed in published writings. If it is indeed wrong to add aspiration to these consonants, at least one will err little more than Tolkien did himself when reading Namárië.

Palatalized and labialized consonants
In Quenya, we find words like nyarna "tale", tyalië "play" or nwalca "cruel". From these spellings it would seem that such words begin in consonant clusters: n + y, t + y, n + w. However, this would not agree with the explicit statement made in Lowdham's Report that "Adunaic, like Avallonian [= Quenya], does not tolerate more than a single basic consonant initially in any word" (SD:417-418). So how are we to explain this?
	The solution seems to be that "combinations" like the ny of nyarna are just single, basic consonants: Ny is not a cluster n + y, but the same unitary sound that is fittingly represented as a single letter "ñ" in Spanish orthography – as in señor. Of course, this sounds very much like "senyor", but "ñ" is really a single consonant. This "ñ" is a palatalized version of n, an n that has been "tinted" in the direction of y. English employs one distinctly palatalized consonant, usually represented by the digraph "sh" (which, of course, is not a cluster s + h); this can be described as a palatalized s. By carefully comparing the pronunciation of s and sh you can perceive the palatalization mechanism operating in your own mouth: A consonant is palatalized by arching the back of the tongue up towards the roof of the mouth (the palate, hence the term "palatalized consonant"). The relationship between s and sh corresponds to the relationship between n and Quenya ny (or Spanish "ñ").
Besides ny, Quenya also has the palatalized consonants ty, ly, ry (e.g. in tyalië "play", alya "rich", verya "bold"); these are palatalized counterparts of "normal" t, l, r. Regarding ty, Tolkien wrote that it may be pronounced as the "t" of English tune (see for instance SD:418-419 – it should be noted that he is thinking of dialects where this comes out as "tyoon"; this is not the case in all forms of American English). In Gondor, some mortal speakers of Quenya supposedly pronounced ty like ch as in English church, but that was not quite the proper Elvish pronunciation. As for the consonant ly, it would be similar to the "lh" of Portuguese olho ("eye"). In LotR Appendix E, Tolkien noted that l (so spelt) should also "to some degree [be] 'palatalized' between e, i and a consonant, or finally after e, i". The wording "to some degree" seems to suggest that we would not have a regular, "full-blown" palatalized l in these positions (like the sound spelt ly), but in words like Eldar "Elves" or amil "mother", the l should ideally have just a little tint of palatalizing to it.
	Besides the palatalized consonants, we have the labialized consonants: nw, gw and qu (= cw). These are not really clusters n + w, g + w, c + w. Rather they represent n, g, c (k) pronounced with pouted lips, as when pronouncing w: By the pouting of the lips, the consonant is "labialized" (this word comes from the Latin term for "lip"). Quenya qu may certainly be pronounced as in English queen, but ideally it should be pronounced as k and w merged together in a single, unitary sound. (True, there does exist one early source where Tolkien states that qu, though originally being simply k "accomp[anied] by lip-rounding", "is now sounded practically exactly as English qu – a liprounded k foll[owed] by a distinct w sound": See Parma Eldalamberon #13, page 63. However, I think this idea may be superseded by information from a much later source, indicating that Quenya had no initial consonant clusters: SD:417-418.) Nw and gw similarly represent "merged" versions of n/w, g/w. – It should be noted that nw is a single, labialized consonant only at the beginning of words, where it represents earlier ngw (sc. what Tolkien might also spell "ñw", using "ñ" for ng as in king). In the middle of words, e.g. in vanwa "gone, lost", nw really is a cluster n + w and is so spelt also in Tengwar orthography. However, the labialized consonants qu and gw also occur in the middle of words. In fact, gw occurs only in that position, and always in the combination ngw (not "ñw" but "ñgw", still using "ñ" as Tolkien did): Lingwë "fish", nangwa "jaw", sungwa "drinking-vessel".
The question of length: It may seem that when they occur medially between vowels, the palatalized and labialized consonants count as long or double consonants (as if the digraphs represented actual consonant clusters after all). Again using the letter "ñ" with its Spanish value of a palatalized n (and not, as Tolkien often did, for ng as in king), one may ask whether a word like atarinya ("my father", LR:61) actually represents "atariñña". If so, the group ny in the middle of words denotes a long palatalized N. Then the very word Quenya would be pronounced "Queñña" rather than "Quen-ya". Another possibility is "Queñya", the n being palatalized all right, but there is still a relatively distinct y-sound following it (which there would not be when ny occurs at the beginning of a word). Tolkien reading a version of Namárië at least once pronounced the word inyar as "iññar" (but the second time it occurred he simply said "inyar" with n + y). In any case, the groups ny, ly, ry, ty and qu (for cw) must be counted as either long consonants or consonant clusters for the purpose of stress (see below) – though it is also clear that sometimes they must be analyzed as single, unitary consonants.

Stress 
Whenever a language has polysyllabic words, speakers of this language may enunciate some syllables more forcefully than others. We say that these syllables are stressed or accented. In some languages speakers don't normally emphasize certain syllables more than others. For instance, the Japanese put about the same amount of stress on every syllable, resulting in what unloving foreigners have referred to as "machine gun articulation". But in Western languages, a varying amount of stress is common: Some syllables are stressed, others unstressed.
	The rules for which syllables are stressed vary wildly, though. Some languages have a very simple system; in French, words that are to receive any stress are always accented on the final syllable. To the natives, Paris is not "PARis" as in English, but rather "parIS" (actually the French don't pronounce the s, but that has nothing to do with the accent). The Finns also have a very simple system, stressing all words on the first syllable: While some speakers of English may think that Helsinki is most "naturally" pronounced "HelSINKi", the residents of the city will insist on "HELsinki" instead.
	Since the Finnish language was evidently Tolkien's foremost inspiration, one might think that he would have copied its simple system of accenting all words on the first syllable over into Quenya. In the "internal" or fictional history of the language, he did indeed envision an early period during which Quenya words were so accented (the so-called retraction period, WJ:366). However, this was replaced by a new system already before the Noldor went into exile, so Quenya as a language of lore in Middle-earth employed different accentuation patterns, carefully described in LotR Appendix E. This is the system we must use. (It seems that Tolkien actually copied it from Latin!)
	Words of one syllable, like nat "thing", obviously pose no problem; this one syllable is the sole candidate for receiving the stress. The simplest polysyllabic words, those of two syllables, are no problem either: In LotR Appendix E, Tolkien noted that "in words of two syllables [the accent] falls in practically all cases on the first syllable". As this wording implies, there may be a very few exceptions; the only exception known seems to be the word avá "don't!", that is accented on the final syllable: "aVÁ". (Even this one word also appears in the alternative form áva, stressed on the first syllable according to the normal rule: "ÁVa".) The name of the Blessed Realm, Aman, I sometimes hear people pronounce with the stress on the second rather than the first syllable – but the correct pronunciation must be "AMan", if we can trust the rules set out by Tolkien. ("AmAN" would be Amman, capital of Jordan!)
	Longer words, with three or more syllables, are slightly more complex when it comes to stress. Many of them are accented on the second to last syllable. However, in some cases the second-to-last syllable isn't "qualified" to receive the accent: This syllable cannot be accented if it is short. So how do we recognize a short syllable? If it contains no long vowel (no vowel marked with an accent), this is obviously one omen. Then the vowel itself is necessarily short. If this short vowel is followed by only one consonant, or even no consonant at all, this syllable has little chance of receiving the accent. Its one remaining chance of redeeming itself as a long syllable is that instead of a simple short vowel it actually contains one of the Quenya diphthongs: ai, au, eu, oi, ui or iu. Two vowels combined into a diphthong count as having the same "length" as a normal, unitary long vowel (marked by an accent). But if there is no diphthong, no long vowel, and not even a short vowel followed by more than one consonant, the syllable in question is irredeemably short. If this is the second-to-last syllable in a word of three or more syllables, this penultimate syllable has forfeited all its chances to receive the stress. In such a case the stress moves one step ahead, to fall on the third syllable from the end (no matter what this syllable looks like). Tolkien noted that words of such a shape "are favoured in the Eldarin languages, especially Quenya". Examples:
	¤ A word like vestalë "wedding" is accented "VESTalë". The second-to-last syllable cannot receive the stress because its vowel (the a) is short and followed by only a single consonant (the l); hence the accent moves one step ahead, to the third syllable from the end. Plural forms like Teleri (the Sea-Elves) and Istari (the Wizards) I sometimes hear people mispronounce as "TeLERi", "IsTARi"; applying Tolkien's rules we have to conclude that he actually intended "TELeri", "ISTari". The short penultimate syllables in these words cannot be accented.
¤ A word like Eressëa (the name of an isle near the Blessed Realm) some speakers of English are tempted to accent on the second-to-last syllable (following the stress-pattern of such a place-name as "Eritrea"!) But since in Er-ess-ë-a the second-to-last syllable is just a short ë not followed by a group of consonants (actually not even one consonant), this syllable cannot be accented and the stress moves to the syllable before it: "ErESSëa". Other words of the same pattern (with no consonant following a short vowel in the second-to-last syllable): Eldalië "the people of the Elves" ("ElDAlië" – though the word Elda "Elf" by itself is of course accented "ELda"), Tilion "The Horned", name of a Maia ("TILion"), laurëa "golden" ("LAURëa"), Yavannië "September" ("YaVANNië"), Silmarillion "[The Story] of the Silmarils" ("SilmaRILLion").
But though such words were "favoured", there is certainly no lack of words where the second-to-last syllable does qualify for receiving the accent. Examples: 
¤ Varda's title Elentári "Star-Queen" is pronounced "ElenTÁRi", since the vowel á in the second-to-last syllable is long. (If this had been a short a, it couldn't have been stressed since it is not followed by more than one consonant, and the third syllable from the end would have been accented instead: "ELENtari" – but no such word exists.) The names Númenórë, Valinórë are likewise accented on the long ó in the second-to-last syllable (whereas in the shortened forms Númenor, Valinor the accent must fall on the third syllable from the end: NÚMenor, VALinor).
¤ Words like hastaina "marred" or Valarauco "Power-demon" (Sindarin Balrog) are accented "hasTAINa", "ValaRAUCo" – since diphthongs like ai, au can be counted as long vowels for the purpose of stress.
¤ The names Elendil and Isildur are accented "ElENDil" and "IsILDur", since the vowel in the second-to-last-syllable, though short, is followed by more than one consonant (the groups nd, ld, respectively). A double consonant would have the same effect as a cluster of different consonants; for instance, Elenna ("Starwards", a name of Númenor) is pronounced "ElENNa". (Contrast the adjective elena "stellar, of the stars": this must be accented "ELena" since the second-to-last syllable "en" is short and therefore unable to receive the accent – unlike the long syllable "enn" in Elenna.)

Notice that the one letter x represents two consonants, ks. Therefore, a word like Helcaraxë (a place-name) is accented "HelcarAXë" (not "HelCARaxë" as if there were only one consonant following the a in the second-to-last syllable). Cf. the alternative spelling Helkarakse in the Etymologies, entry KARAK.

As noted above, some combinations should apparently be thought of as single consonants: qu (for cw/kw) represents labialized k, not k + w. Similarly, ny, ty, ly, ry would be palatalized n, t, l, r (the first = Spanish ñ). But in the middle of words, for the purpose of stress, it seems that qu, ly, ny, ty etc. do count as groups of consonants (double consonants or clusters – we cannot be certain precisely what Tolkien intended). In WJ:407, Tolkien indicates that the compound word ciryaquen "shipman, sailor" (made from cirya "ship" + -quen "person") is to be accented "cirYAquen". If qu (= cw/kw) were here thought of as a single consonant, labialized k, there would not be a group of consonants following the a and it could not receive the accent: the word would then have been pronounced "CIRyaquen" instead. So either qu here does count as a cluster k + w, or it represents a long or double labialized k (or even labialized kw followed by w). Bottom line is: pronounce "cirYAquen" and be relieved that the rest is mainly academic meandering. A few other words including the combinations in question: Elenya (first day of the Eldarin six-day week, accented "ElENya"), Calacirya or Calacilya (a place in the Blessed Realm, accented "CalaCIrya", "CalaCIlya").
A word of warning regarding the accent mark: Notice that the accent mark that may appear above vowels (á, é, í, ó, ú) only denotes that the vowel is long. While this symbol is frequently used to indicate the stressed syllable, this is not the case in Tolkien's normal spelling of Quenya. (Some may have noted that Pokémon isn't accented on the é either, so Tolkien isn't wildly idiosyncratic in this department!) A long vowel will often receive the stress, as in the example Elentári above, but not necessarily so: If the long vowel does not appear in the second-to-last syllable, its length (and the accent mark denoting it!) is quite irrelevant for the purpose of stress. In a word like Úlairi, the Quenya name for the Ringwraiths or Nazgûl, the stress falls on the diphthong ai, not on the ú. The spelling palantír has mislead many, making them think that this word is to be accented on "tír". Here is something Ian McKellen, playing Gandalf in the Peter Jackson LotR movie trilogy, wrote as the film was being shot:

...I have to learn a new pronunciation. All this time we have being
saying "palanTÍR" instead of the Old English stress on the first syllable.
Just as the word was about to be committed to the soundtrack, a correction came from Andrew Jack, the Dialect Coach; he taught me a Norfolk accent for Restoration, and for LOTR he supervises accents, languages and all things vocal. Palantír, being strictly of elvish origin should follow Tolkien's rule that the syllable before a double consonant should be stressed – "paLANTír" making a sound which is close to "lantern"...

Andrew Jack was right. Palantír cannot be stressed on the final syllable; virtually no polysyllabic Quenya words are accented in such a way (as I said above, avá "don't!" is the sole known exception). Instead the a in the second-to-last syllable receives the accent because it is followed by the consonant cluster nt (I should not call this a "double consonant" like McKellen does, since I want to reserve that term for a group of two identical consonants, like tt or nn – but for the purpose of stress, double consonants and clusters of different consonants have the same effect). So it is indeed "palANTír". (But in the plural form palantíri, where the long í suddenly appears in the second-to-last syllable, it does receive the accent: "palanTÍRi".)

In the case of long words ending in two short syllables, the last of these syllables may receive a weaker secondary stress. In a word like hísimë "mist", the main stress falls on hís, but the final syllable -më is not wholly unstressed. This secondary stress is much weaker than the main accent, though. (Nonetheless, Tolkien did note that for the purpose of poetry, the secondary stress can be used metrically: RGEO:69.)

Speed
Finally a brief note on something we know little about: How fast should one talk when speaking Quenya? The few recordings of Tolkien speaking Quenya are not "reliable" in this matter; he inevitably enunciates quite carefully. But regarding Fëanor's mother Míriel he noted that "she spoke swiftly and took pride in this skill" (PM:333). So fast Quenya is evidently good Quenya. When Tolkien also wrote that "the Elves made considerable use of...concomitant gestures" (WJ:416), one remembers that he had a great love for Italian – see Letters:223.

Summary of Lesson One: The Quenya vowels are a, e, i, o, u; long vowels are marked with an accent: á, é etc. The vowels should be pure, pronounced with their "Italian" values; long á and é should be noticeably closer than short a, e. Some vowels may receive a diaeresis (ë, ä etc.), but this does not affect their pronunciation and is only intended as a clarification for people used to English orthography. The diphthongs are ai, au, eu, oi, ui, and iu. The consonant c is always pronounced k; l should be pronounced as a "clear", dental L; r should be trilled; s is always unvoiced; y is only used as a consonant (as in English you). Ideally, the consonants t, p, c should probably be unaspirated. Palatalized consonants are represented by digraphs in -y (ty, ny etc.); labialized consonants are normally written as digraphs in -w (e.g. nw, but what would be cw is spelt qu instead). H is pronounced [x] (German ach-Laut) before t, unless this combination ht is preceded by one of the vowels e or i, in which case h is sounded like German ich-Laut. Otherwise, h may be pronounced like English h; the digraphs hy and hw however represent ich-Laut and unvoiced w (like American English wh), respectively. The combinations hl and hr originally represented unvoiced l, r, but by the Third Age, these sounds had come to be pronounced like normal l and r. In polysyllabic words, the stress falls on the second-to-last syllable when that is long (containing either a long vowel, a diphthong, or a vowel followed by a consonant cluster or a double consonant). If the second-to-last syllable is short, the stress falls on the third syllable from the end (unless the word has only two syllables, in which case the first syllable receives the stress whether it is short or long).

EXERCISES
As far as the most critical subtleties of pronunciation are concerned, I unfortunately cannot make any exercises; we are not in a classroom so that I can comment on your pronunciation. But regarding stress (accent) and the pronunciation of h, it is possible to make exercises.

1. Determine which vowel (single vowel or diphthong) receives the accent in the words below. (It is not necessary to indicate where the entire syllable it belongs to begins and ends.)

A. Alcar ("glory")
B. Alcarë (longer variant of the above)
C. Alcarinqua ("glorious")
D. Calima ("bright")
E. Oronti ("mountains")
F. Únótimë ("uncountable, numberless")
G. Envinyatar ("renewer")
H. Ulundë ("flood")
I. Eäruilë ("seaweed")
J. Ercassë ("holly")

Extra exercise on stress: While we hear many Sindarin lines in the movie, one of the few really prominent samples of Quenya in Peter Jackson's The Fellowship of the Ring is the scene where "Saruman" (Christopher Lee) standing on the top of Isengard reads an invocation to bring down an avalanche in order to stop the Fellowship. He says to the mountain they are attempting to cross: Nai yarvaxëa rasselya taltuva notto-carinnar! = "may your bloodstained horn collapse upon enemy heads!" (not translated in the movie). The actor accents the words like this: nai yarVAXëa RASSelya TALTuva notto-CARinnar. Are all the words accented as they should be, according to Tolkien's guidelines? If not, what is right and what is wrong?

2. Where the letter h appears in Quenya words as they are spelt in our letters, it may be pronounced in various ways. Ignoring the digraphs hw and hy, the letter h may be pronounced
A) a "breath-h" like English h as in high, 
B) more or less as in English huge, human or ideally like ch in German ich, 
C) like ch in German ach or Scottish loch (in phonetic writing [x]).
In addition we have alternative D): the letter h is not really pronounced at all, but merely indicates that the following consonant was unvoiced in archaic Quenya.
Sort the words below into these four categories (A, B, C, D):

K. Ohtar ("warrior")
L. Hrávë ("flesh")
M. Nahta ("a bite")
N. Heru ("lord")
O. Nehtë ("spearhead")
P. Mahalma ("throne")
Q. Hellë ("sky")
R. Tihtala ("blinking")
S. Hlócë ("snake, serpent")
T. Hísië ("mist")

(Keys to the exercises found in this course are appended at the end of this document.)

LESSON TWO
Nouns. Plural form. The article.

Words that denote things, as opposed to for instance actions, are called nouns. The "things" in question may be inanimate (like "stone"), animate (like "person", "woman", "boy"), natural (like "tree"), artificial (like "bridge, house"), concrete (like "stone" again) or wholly abstract (like "hatred"). Names of persons, like "Peter" or "Mary", are also considered nouns. Sometimes a noun may denote, not one clearly distinct object or person, but an entire substance (like "gold" or "water"). So there is much to be included.
	In most languages, a noun can be inflected, that is, it appears in various forms to modify its meaning, or to make it fit into a specific grammatical context. For instance, if you want to connect two English nouns like "Mary" and "house" in such a way as to make it clear that Mary owns the house, you modify the form of the noun Mary by adding the ending -'s, producing Mary's, which readily connects with house to make the phrase Mary's house. Or starting with a noun like tree, you may want to make it clear that you are talking about more than one singular tree, and so you modify the word to its plural form by adding the plural ending -s to get trees. In English, a noun doesn't have very many forms at all; there is the singular (e.g. girl), its plural (girls), the form you use when the one denoted by the noun owns something (girl's) and the combination of the plural and this "ownership"-form (written girls' and unfortunately not really distinct from girls or girl's in sound, but speakers of English somehow get along without too many misunderstandings – rest assured that the Quenya equivalents are clearly distinct in form!) So an English noun comes in no more than four different forms.
A Quenya noun, on the other hand, comes in hundreds of different forms. It can receive endings not only for two different kinds of plural, plus endings denoting a pair of things, but also endings expressing meanings that in English would be denoted by placing small words like "for, in/on, from, to, of, with" etc. in front of the noun instead. Finally a Quenya noun can also receive endings denoting who owns it, e.g. -rya- "her" in máryat "her hands" in Namárië (the final -t, by the way, is one of the endings denoting a pair of something – in this case a natural pair of hands). 
	Having read the above, the student should not succumb to the idea that Quenya is a horribly difficult language ("imagine, hundreds of different forms to learn where English has only four!"), or for that matter start thinking that Quenya must be some kind of super-language ("wow, hundreds of different forms to play with while the poor English-speaking sods have to get along with a pitiful four!") English and Quenya organize the information differently, that is all – the former often preferring a string of short words, the latter rather jumbling the ideas to be expressed into one big mouthful. The hundreds of different forms arise because a much lower number of endings can be combined, so there is no reason to despair. It is a little like counting; you needn't learn two hundred and fifty different numeric symbols to be able to count to 250, but only the ten from 0 to 9.
	Most of the endings a noun can take we won't discuss until
 (much) later lessons. We will start with something that should be familiar enough, found even on the puny list of English noun-forms: Making a noun plural – going from one to several.
	In Quenya, there are two different plurals. One is formed by adding the ending -li to the noun. Tolkien called this the "partitive plural" (WJ:388) or a "general pl[ural]" (see the Etymologies, entry TELES). When I first wrote this course, its exact function was unknown, so it does not appear in the exercises here presented. Some of Tolkien’s explanations have since been published, broadly confirming the theories we had, but there seem to be contradictions in Tolkien’s material. Sometimes the ending -li seems to imply "many", as when falmali is translated "many waves” (PE17:73); compare the singular falma "(foaming, crested) wave". With a further ending -nnar meaning "to, on, onto", this word occurs in Namárië: the phrase i falmalinnar is translated "on the foaming waves”. Maybe the plural in -li form suggests a great number of waves here. 
	Elsewhere Tolkien wrote that the form in -li expresses some of the thing in question. Eldali is used for "some Elves" (VT49:8).
For now we will deal with the "normal" plural form instead. Any reader of Tolkien's narratives will have encountered plenty of examples of this form; they are especially common in the Silmarillion. Nouns ending in any of the four vowels -a, -o, -i or -u , plus nouns ending in the group -ië, form their plural with the ending -r. Cf. the names of various groups of people mentioned in the Silmarillion:

Elda "Elf", plural Eldar
Vala "god (or technically angel)", pl. Valar
	Ainu "spirit of God's first creation", pl. Ainur
	Noldo "Noldo, member of the Second Clan of the Eldar", pl. Noldor
	Valië "female Vala", pl. Valier

For another example of -ië, cf. tier for "paths" in Namárië; compare singular tië "path". (According to the spelling conventions here employed, the diaeresis in tië is dropped in the plural form tier because the dots are there merely to mark that final -ë is not silent, but in tier, e is not final anymore because an ending has been added – and hence the dots go.) Examples of the plurals of nouns in -i are rare, since nouns with this ending are rare themselves, but in MR:229 we have quendir as the pl. of quendi "Elf-woman" (and also quendur as the pl. of quendu "Elf-man"; nouns in -u are not very numerous either).

This singular word quendi "Elf-woman" must not be confused with the plural word Quendi that many readers of Tolkien's fiction will remember from the Silmarillion, for instance in the description of the awakening of the Elves in chapter 3: "Themselves they named the Quendi, signifying those that speak with voices; for as yet they had met no other living things that spoke or sang." Quendi is the plural form of Quendë "Elf"; nouns ending in -ë typically form their plurals in -i, and as we see, this -i replaces the final -ë instead of being added to it. In WJ:361, Tolkien explicitly refers to "nouns in -e, the majority of which formed their plurals in -i". 

As this wording implies, there are exceptions; a few nouns in -ë are seen to use the other plural ending, -r, instead. One exception we have already touched on: where the -ë is part of -ië, we have plurals in -ier, as in tier "paths". Hence we avoid the awkward plural form **tii. Other exceptions cannot be explained as easily. In LotR Appendix E, we have tyeller for "grades", evidently the plural of tyellë.  Why tyeller instead of **tyelli? LR:47 likewise indicates that the plural of mallë "road" is maller; why not **malli? It may be that nouns in -lë have plurals in -ler because "regular" **-li might cause confusion with the partitive plural ending -li mentioned above. In the original version of this course, I wrote at this point: "Unfortunately, we lack more examples that could confirm or disprove this theory (and so I don't dare to construct any exercises based on this assumption, though I would follow this rule in my own Quenya compositions)." An Tolkien example that has since been published would seem to confirm the pattern: in 2007 the form fintaler "tricks" appeared (PE17:119).

The form tyeller confused early researchers; with extremely few examples to go on, some wrongly concluded that nouns in -ë regularly have plurals in -er. The name of the early journal Parma Eldalamberon or "Book of Elven-tongues" reflects this mistake; the title incorporates **lamber as the presumed plural of lambë "tongue, language", while we now know that the correct plural must be lambi. Though the error was early suspected and is now recognized by everyone, the publisher never bothered to change the name of the journal to the correct form Parma Eldalambion (and so, ever and anon, I get an e-mail from some fresh student wondering why my site is called Ardalambion and not Ardalamberon...) In some cases, Tolkien himself seems uncertain which plural ending should be used. In PM:332, the plural form of Ingwë "Elf of the First Clan [also name of the king of that clan]" is given as Ingwi, just as we would expect; yet a few pages later, in PM:340, we find Ingwer instead (it is there said that the First Clan, the Vanyar, called themselves Ingwer, so perhaps this reflects a special Vanyarin usage?) It may be noted that in Tolkien's earliest "Qenya", more nouns in -ë apparently had plural forms in -er. For instance, the early poem Narqelion has lasser as the plural of lassë "leaf", but in Namárië in LotR Tolkien used the plural form lassi. 
As far as I know, the words in the exercises below all follow the normal rule: Nouns ending in -ë, except as a part of -ië, have plurals in -i.

This leaves only one group of nouns to be considered, namely those that end in a consonant. These nouns, just like those that end in -ë, are seen to have plurals in -i. A few examples: Eleni "stars", the plural form of elen "star", occurs in Namárië (and also in WJ:362, where both the singular and the plural form are quoted). The Silmarillion has Atani for "Men" (not "males", but humans as opposed to Elves); this is formed from the singular word Atan. According to WJ:388, the word Casar "Dwarf" has the plural Casari "Dwarves". 

Of these two plural endings – r as in Eldar "Elves", but i as in Atani "(Mortal) Men" – Tolkien imagined the latter to be the most ancient. The plural ending -i comes directly from Primitive Elvish -ī, a word like Quendi representing primitive Kwendī. The plural ending -r arose later: "For the showing of many the new device of r was brought in and used in all words of a certain shape – and this, it is said, was begun among the Noldor" (PM:402). In primary-world terms, both plural endings were however present in Tolkien's conception from the beginning; already in his earliest work on "Qenya", written during World War I, we find forms like Qendi (as it was then spelt) and Eldar coexisting. The twin plural endings are a feature that evidently survived throughout all the stages of Tolkien's development of Quenya, from 1915 to 1973.

NOTE ON THE DIFFERENT WORDS FOR "ELF": As the attentive reader will have inferred from the above, there is more than one Quenya word for "Elf". The word with the widest application, within the scope of Tolkien's fiction, was Quendë pl. Quendi. This form is at least associated with the word "to speak" (quet-), and Tolkien speculated that ultimately these words were indeed related via a very primitive base KWE- having to do with vocal speech (see WJ:391-392). When the Elves awoke by the mere of Cuiviénen, they called themselves Quendi (or in primitive Elvish actually Kwendī) since for a long time they knew of no other speaking creatures. Eventually the Vala Oromë found them under a starlit sky, and he gave them a new name in the language they themselves had developed: Eldāi, often translated "Starfolk". In Quenya, this primitive word later appeared as Eldar (singular Elda). While the term Eldar (Eldāi) was originally meant to apply to the entire Elvish race, it was later only used of the Elves that accepted the invitation of the Valar to come and dwell in the Blessed Realm of Aman and embarked on the Great March to get there (the term Eldar is also applicable to those who never actually made it all the way to Aman, such as the Sindar or Grey-elves who stayed in Beleriand). Those who refused the invitation were called Avari, "Refusers", and hence all Elves (Quendi) can be subdivided into Eldar and Avari. Only the former play any important part in Tolkien's narratives. So in later Quenya the situation was this: Quendë pl. Quendi remained as the only truly universal term for all Elves of any kind, but this was a technical word primarily used by the Loremasters, not a word that would be used in daily speech. The gender-specific variants of Quendë "Elf", namely masculine quendu and feminine quendi, would presumably be used only if you wanted to speak of a specifically Elvish (wo)man as opposed to a (wo)man of any other sentient race: These are not the normal Quenya words for "man" and "woman" (the normal words are nér and nís, presumably applicable to a man or woman of any sentient race, not just Elves). The normal, everyday Quenya term for "Elf" was Elda, and the fact that this word technically didn't apply to Elves of the obscure Avarin tribes living somewhere far east in Middle-earth was no big problem since none of them was ever seen anyway. Regarding the compound Eldalië (which combines Elda with lië "people, folk") Tolkien wrote that when one of the Elves of Aman used this word, "he meant vaguely all the race of Elves, though he was probably not thinking of the Avari" (WJ:374). – Throughout the exercises found in this course, I have used Elda (rather than Quendë) as the standard translation of English "Elf", regardless of any specialized meaning it may have within Tolkien's mythos. As I said in the Introduction, in these exercises I largely eschew specific references to Tolkien's mythos and narratives. 

THE ARTICLE
We have time for one more thing in this lesson: the article. An article, linguistically speaking, is such a word as English "the" or "a, an". These little words are used in conjunction with nouns to express such different shades of meaning as "a horse" vs. "the horse". Anyone capable of reading this text in the first place will know what the difference is, so no lengthy explanation is necessary. In short, "a horse" refers to a horse that hasn't been mentioned before, so you slip in the article "a" as a kind of introduction: "Look, there's a horse over there!" You may also use the phrase "a horse" if you want to say something that is true of any horse, as in "a horse is an animal". If, on the other hand, you say "the horse", it usually refers to one definite horse. Hence "the" is termed the definite article, while "a, an", lacking this "definite" aspect, is conversely called the indefinite article.
 In this respect at least, Quenya is somewhat simpler than English. Quenya has only one article, corresponding to the English definite article "the" (and since there is no indefinite article it must be distinguished from, we may simply speak of "the article" when discussing Quenya). The Quenya word corresponding to English "the" is i. For instance, Namárië has i eleni for "the stars". As can be inferred from the above, Quenya has no word corresponding to English "a, an". When translating Quenya into English, one simply has to slip in "a" wherever English grammar demands an indefinite article, as in the famous greeting Elen síla lúmenn' omentielvo, "a star shines upon the hour of our meeting". As we see, the first word of the Quenya sentence is simply elen "star", with nothing corresponding to the English indefinite article "a" before it (or anywhere else in the sentence, for that matter). In Quenya, there is no way you can maintain the distinction between "a star" and just "star"; both are simply elen. Luckily there isn't much of a distinction to be maintained anyway. Languages like Arabic, Hebrew and classical Greek employ a similar system: there is a definite article corresponding to English "the", but nothing corresponding to the English indefinite article "a, an" (and this is the system used in Esperanto as well). After all, the absence of the definite article is itself enough to signal that a (common) noun is indefinite, so the indefinite article is in a way superfluous. Tolkien decided to do without it in Quenya, so students only have to worry about i = "the".
Sometimes, Tolkien connects the article to the next word by means of a hyphen or a dot: i-mar "the earth" (Fíriel's Song), i·coimas "the lifebread" (PM:396). However, he did not do so in LotR (we have already quoted the example i eleni "the stars" in Namárië), and neither will we here.
The Quenya article is generally used as in English. However, some nouns that would require the article in English are apparently counted as proper names in Quenya, and so take no article. For instance, the sentence Anar caluva tielyanna is translated "the Sun shall shine upon your path" (UT:22, 51); yet there is no article in the Quenya sentence. "The Sun" is not **i Anar, but simply Anar. Clearly Anar is perceived as a proper name, designating one celestial body only, and you don't have to say "the Anar" any more than an English-speaking person would say "the Mars". The name of "the" Moon, Isil, undoubtedly behaves like Anar in this respect. It may be noted that both words are treated as proper names in the Silmarillion, chapter 11: "Isil was first wrought and made ready, and first rose into the realm of the stars... Anar arose in glory, and the first dawn of the Sun was like a great fire..."
Also notice that before a plural denoting an entire people (or even race), the article is not normally used. WJ:404 mentions a saying Valar valuvar, "the will of the Valar will be done" (or more literally *"the Valar will rule"). Notice that "the Valar" is simply Valar in Quenya, not i Valar. Similarly, PM:395 has lambë Quendion for "language of the Elves" and coimas Eldaron for "coimas [lembas] of the Eldar" – not **lambë i Quendion, **coimas i Eldaron. (The ending -on here appended to the plurals Quendi, Eldar signifies "of"; this ending should not affect whether or not the article has to be present before the word.)
With this usage compare Tolkien's use of "Men" in his narratives to refer to the human race as such: "Men awoke in Hildórien at the rising of the Sun... A darkness lay upon the hearts of Men... Men (it is said) were at first very few in number..." (Silmarillion, chapter 17.) By contrast, "the Men" would refer, not to the entire race, but only to a casual group of "Men" or humans. Quenya plurals denoting entire peoples or races seem to behave in the same way. In a Quenya text there would be no article before plurals like Valar, Eldar, Vanyar, Noldor, Lindar, Teleri, Atani etc. as long as the entire race or people is considered, even though Tolkien's English narratives speak of "the Valar", "the Eldar" etc. However, if we replace Eldar with its equivalent "Elves", we see that the article often would often not be required in English, either (e.g. "Elves are beautiful" = Eldar nar vanyë). If you say "the Elves are beautiful" = i Eldar nar vanyë, you are describing once particular group of Elves, not the entire race. Tolkien explained that Eldar without the article means "Elves, The Elves, All Elves", whereas i Eldar "the Elves" is just "the Elves previously mentioned" (VT49:8). When such a limited group is first mentioned, it seems the "partitive plural" in -li would be used, as in "I saw some Elves [Eldali]". Further references to these specific Elves would include the definite article and use a normal plural form: i Eldar.

Occasionally, especially in poetry, the article seemingly drops out for no special reason. Perhaps it is simply omitted because of metric considerations. The first line of Namárië, ai! laurië lantar lassi súrinen, Tolkien translated "ah! like gold fall the leaves..." – though there is no i before lassi "leaves" in the Quenya text. The Markirya poem also leaves out the article in a number of places, if we are to judge by Tolkien's English translation of it. In the example from Namárië, it may be that lassi has a general reference, much like Eldar can mean the whole Elvish race. If so, Tolkien’s translation "the leaves" is really parallel to "the Elves" used in a generic sense: Good English here requires a definite article, but Quenya does not.

Summary of Lesson Two: There is a plural ending -li signifying some (or sometimes many) of the thing in question; its function was still uncertain when this course was written, so it does not appear in the exercises. The normal plural is formed by adding -r to nouns ending in any of the vowels -a, -i, -o, -u, plus nouns ending in -ië. If, on the other hand, the noun ends in -ë (except, of course, as part of -ië) the plural ending is usually -i (displacing the final -ë); nouns ending in a consonant also form their plurals in -i. The Quenya definite article, corresponding to English "the", is i. There is no indefinite article like English "a, an".

VOCABULARY
Regarding Frodo hearing Galadriel singing Namárië, the LotR states that "as is the way of Elvish words, they remained graven in his memory". This may be a comforting thought to students attempting to memorize Quenya vocabulary. In the lessons proper, while I discuss various aspects of Quenya, I will normally mention quite a few words – but in the exercises, I will only use words from the "vocabulary" list that is hereafter presented at the end of each lesson. Thus, this is all the student is excepted to carefully memorize (doing the exercises for the next lessons, you will also need vocabulary introduced earlier). We will introduce twelve new words in each lesson: a fitting number, since Tolkien's Elves preferred counting in twelves rather than tens as we do. 

er "one" (With a masculine ending, this numeral is the source of the divine name Eru, the One. From now on, we will introduce one new number in each lesson. In the original version of this course, I gave the numeral “one” as minë, but according to material published later, minë is “one” as the first in a series.)
Anar "(the) Sun"
Isil "(the) Moon"
ar "and" (Tolkien noted that this is pronounced as before a word in s- and likewise al before a word in l-, but “in written Quenya ar was usually written in all cases” [PE17:71], so we always write ar here as well.)
Elda "Elf"
lië "people" (sc. an entire "ethnic group" or even race, as in Eldalië = the People of the Elves).
vendë "maiden" (in archaic Quenya wendë)
rocco "horse" (specifically "swift horse for riding", according to Letters:382)
aran "king"
tári "queen"
tasar "willow" (by its form this could be the plural of **tasa, but no such word exists, and -r is here part of the basic word and not an ending. This word occurs, compounded, in LotR – Treebeard chanting "In the willow-meads of Tasarinan [Willow-vale] I walked in the spring...")
nu "under"

EXERCISES

1. Translate into English (or whatever language you prefer):

A. Roccor
B. Aran (two possible English translations!)
C. I rocco.
D. I roccor. 
E. Arani.
F. Er lië nu er aran.
G. I aran ar i tári.
H. Vendi.

2. Translate into Quenya:

I. Willows.
J. Elves.
K. The kings.
L. Peoples.
M. The horse under (or, below) the willow.
N. A maiden and a queen.
O. The queen and the maidens.
P. The Sun and the Moon

LESSON THREE  
Dual number. Stem variation.

DUAL NUMBER
The previous lesson covered two Quenya plural forms: the "partitive plural" in -li, and the "normal" plural in either -r or -i (mostly depending on the shape of the word). Like quite a few "real" languages, Quenya also possesses a dual form, that has no direct counterpart in English. Dual number refers to two things, a couple of things. The dual is formed with one out of two endings: -u or -t. 
	Within the fictional timeline imagined by Tolkien, these two endings originally had somewhat different meanings, and so were not completely interchangeable. A footnote in Letters:427 provides some information on this. The ending -u (from Primitive Elvish -ū) was originally used in the case of natural pairs, of two things or persons somehow belonging together as a logical couple. For instance, according to VT39:9, 11, the word pé "lip" has the dual form peu "lips", referring to one person's pair of lips (and not, for instance, to the upper lip of one person and the lower lip of another, which would be just "two lips" and not a natural pair). The noun veru, meaning "married pair" or "husband and wife", has dual form; in this case there does not seem to be a corresponding singular "spouse" (but we have verno "husband" and vessë "wife" from the same root; see LR:352). The noun alda "tree" occurs in dual form with reference, not to any casual pair of trees, but the Two Trees of Valinor: Aldu. 
Notice that if the ending -u is added to a noun ending in a vowel, this vowel is displaced: hence the dual of alda is aldu rather than **aldau – though a word quoted in PM:138, reproducing a draft for the LotR Appendices, seems to suggest that Tolkien for a moment considered precisely the latter form. There is also an old source that has Aldaru, apparently formed by adding the dual ending -u to the normal plural aldar "trees", but this seems to be an early experiment of Tolkien's that was probably long obsolete by the time he wrote LotR. In the dual form peu, the final vowel of pé "lip" is apparently not displaced by the dual ending -u. However, Quenya pé is meant to descend from primitive Elvish peñe, whereas the dual form peu is meant to come from peñū (VT39:9) – so the e of peu was not originally final.  
	As for the other dual ending, -t, it according to Letters:427 represents an old element ata. This, Tolkien noted, was originally "purely numerative"; it is indeed related to the Quenya word for the numeral "two", atta. By "purely numerative", Tolkien evidently meant that the dual in -t could denote two things only casually related. For instance, ciryat as the dual form of cirya "ship" could refer to any two ships; ciryat would only be a kind of spoken shorthand for the full phrase cirya atta, "two ships" (literally "ship two"; we will discuss the syntax relating to numbers later). However, Tolkien further noted that "in later Q[uenya]", the dual forms were "only usual with reference to natural pairs". Precisely what he means by "later" Quenya cannot be determined; it could refer to Quenya as a ritual language in Middle-earth rather than the vernacular of the Eldar in Valinor. In any case, the Third Age Quenya we aim for in this course must certainly be included when Tolkien speaks of "later" Quenya, so here we will follow the rule that any dual form must refer to some kind of natural or logical pair, not to two things only casually related. In other words, the dual in -t came to have just the same "meaning" as a dual in -u. A dual like ciryat "2 ships" (curiously spelt "ciriat" in Letters:427, perhaps a typo) would not in later Quenya be used with reference to any two ships, but only of two ships that somehow form a pair – like two sister ships. If you just want to refer to two ships that do not in any way form a natural or logical pair, like any two ships that happen to be seen together, you would not use the dual form but simply the numeral atta "two" – hence cirya atta.
	Since the two endings -t and -u had come to carry the same meaning, 
some rule is needed to determine when to use which. Which ending should be used can apparently be inferred from the shape of the word itself (just like the shape of the word normally determines whether the plural ending should be -i or -r). In Letters:427, Tolkien noted that "the choice of t or u [was] decided by euphony", sc. by what sounded well – adding as an example that -u was preferred to -t if the word that is to receive a dual ending already contains a t or the similar sound d. Hence the dual of alda is aldu rather than **aldat. Another example is ontaru "parents" (VT46:7), a dual form referring to a natural pair of parents (the singular "parent" is ontaro/ontarë, masc. and fem. respectively).
It seems that as far as later Quenya is concerned, -t would be your first option as the dual ending, but if the noun it is to be added to already contains t or d, you opt for -u instead (remembering that this ending displaces any final vowels). The duals Tolkien listed in the Plotz Letter, ciryat "a couple of ships" and lasset "a couple of leaves" (formed from cirya "ship" and lassë "leaf") confirm that a words with no t or d in them take the dual ending -t. Perhaps the ending -u would also be preferred in the case of nouns ending in a consonant, since -t could not be added directly to such a word without producing a final consonant cluster that Quenya phonology wouldn't allow; unfortunately we have no examples. (If the ending -t is to be used anyhow, a vowel would probably have to be inserted before it, producing a longer ending – likely -et. We will eschew this little problem in the exercises below, since nobody really knows the answer.) 
	It is clear, however, that Quenya has a number of old duals that do not follow the rule that the ending is normally -t, replaced by -u only if there is a d or t in the word it is to be added to. The examples veru "married pair" and peu "lips, pair of lips" are proof of that; here there is no t or d present, but the ending is still -u rather than -t. Presumably these are "fossilized" dual forms reflecting the older system in which only -u denoted a natural or logical pair. The example peu "(pair of) lips" suggests that the ending -u is used in the case of body-parts occurring in pairs, such as eyes, arms, legs. (The other ending -t may however be used if certain other endings intrude before the dual ending itself; we will return to this in a later lesson.) The word for "arm" is ranco; the dual form denoting one person's pair of arms is not attested, but my best guess is that it would be rancu. The compound hendumaica "sharp-eye[d]" mentioned in WJ:337 may incorporate a dual hendu "(pair of) eyes". The Quenya word for "eye" is known to be hen, or hend- before an ending (the Etymologies only mentions the normal plural hendi "eyes", LR:364). In the case of this word the dual ending would be -u rather than -t anyway, since there is a d in hend-. The word for "foot", tál, probably has the dual talu (for the shortening of the vowel, see below).
	Sometimes the ending -t may however be used even in the case of bodyparts ("pair of hands" is mát, VT47:6; compare the singular má "hand"). The rule of preferring -u as the dual ending after a word containing t or d is apparently not quite unbreakable, either: Tolkien cited attat (or attot) as the dual form of atto/atta "father" (VT48:19). Indeed Tolkien’s material is hardly ever wholly "consistent" about any feature of Elvish grammar. 

STEM VARIATION 
This is a subject we shall have to spend some paragraphs on, since even on this early stage of the course we haven't been able to wholly eschew it. I will go into some detail here, but students can rest assured that they are not expected to remember all the words and examples below; just try to get a feel for what stem variation is all about. 
Sometimes the form of a Quenya word subtly changes when you add endings to it. Two such words were mentioned above. If you add an ending to tál "foot", for instance -i for plural or -u for dual, the long vowel á is shortened to a. So for instance, the dual "a couple of feet" is talu rather than **tálu. In such a case, tál "foot" may be said to have the stem tal-. Likewise, the word hen "eye" has the stem hend-, since its plural is hendi and not just **heni. The "stem" form does not occur by itself, but is the form you add endings to. When presenting a gloss, I will represent such stem variation by listing the independent form first, followed by a parenthetical "stem form" with a hyphen where the ending goes, e.g.: tál (tal-) "foot", hen (hend-) "eye". 
	In the case of tál vs. tal-, the variation is apparently due to the fact that vowels were often lengthened in words of only one syllable, but when the word had endings the word obviously got to have more than one syllable and so the lengthening did not occur (another example of the same seems to be nér "man" vs. plural neri "men", MR:213/LR:354). Originally, the vowel was short in all forms. It is usually true that the stem form gives away how the word looked at an earlier stage in the long linguistic evolution Tolkien dreamed up in great detail. Hen "eye" in its stem hend- reflects the primitive "base" KHEN-D-E from which it is ultimately derived (LR:364). Quenya could not have -nd at the end of a word and simplified it to -n when the word stands alone (thus, hen in a way represents the impossible "full" form hend), but before an ending the group -nd- was not final and could therefore actually appear. Very often stem variation has to do with clusters or sounds that are not allowed at the end of words, but that may appear elsewhere. Cf. a word like talan "floor". The plural "floors" is not **talani as we might expect, but talami. The stem is talam- because this is the form of the Primitive Elvish root-word: TALAM (LR:390). As Quenya evolved from Primitive Elvish, a rule came into place that only a few consonants were allowed at the end of words, and m was not one of them. The closest "permissible" consonant was n, and so the old word talam was altered to talan – but in the plural form talami (and other forms that added an ending to the word), the m was not final and therefore persisted unchanged. Another, similar case is filit "small bird", that has the stem filic- (e.g. plural filici "small birds"): The primitive root-word was PHILIK (LR:381), but Quenya did not permit -k at the end of a word, so in that position it became -t. When not final it remained k (here spelt c). 
In some cases, the "independent" form is a simplified or shortened form of a word, while the stem form reflects the fuller form. For instance, Tolkien apparently imagined that the word merendë "feast, festival" was often shortened to meren, but the stem is still merend- (LR:372). Hence the plural of meren is merendi, not **mereni. When it stands alone, the word nissë "woman" is normally reduced to nis (or nís with a lengthened vowel), but the double S persists before endings: thus the plural "women" is nissi (LR:377, MR:213). A similar case is Silmarillë, the name of one of the legendary jewels created by Fëanor; this is normally shortened to Silmaril, but before endings the double L of the full form is preserved (Silmarill-); hence the plural is always Silmarilli. In the case of compound words, sc. words made up from several other words, the second element in the compound is often reduced, but a fuller form may turn up before an ending. For instance, the noun Sindel "Grey-elf" (WJ:384) incorporates -el as a reduced form of Elda "Elf". The plural of Sindel is not **Sindeli, but Sindeldi preserving the cluster -ld- seen in Elda. (Since the final -a is lost in the compound, we cannot have the plural **Sindeldar.) 
In some cases a word may be contracted when you add endings to it. In such cases the stem-form does not reflect the older, more complete form of the word. Such contraction often occurs in two-syllable words containing two identical vowels. For instance, feren "beech-tree" is reduced to fern- before an ending, e.g. plural ferni instead of **fereni. WJ:416 likewise indicates that laman "animal" may be reduced to lamn- before an ending, hence for instance lamni "animals", though the unreduced form lamani was also in use. Occasionally, the contracted forms suffer further change when compared to the unreduced form; as the plural of seler "sister" we might expect **selri, but since lr is not a permissible consonant cluster in Quenya, it is changed to ll – the actual plural "sisters" being selli (cf. the Etymologies, entry THEL-, THELES-).

Another form of stem-variations has to do with the final vowel of some words changing when an ending is added. In Quenya, the final vowels -o and -ë sometimes come from -u and -i in Primitive Elvish. At one stage of the linguistic evolution, original short -i became -e when the vowel was final; in the same environment original short -u became -o. For instance, the primitive word tundu "hill, mound" came out as tundo in Quenya (LR:395). But since this change only occurred when the vowel was final, it seems that its original quality would be preserved before an ending. The plural "hills" may well be tundur rather than tundor, though neither form is attested. According to SD:415, the Quenya noun lómë "night" has the "stem" lómi-, evidently meaning that the final vowel -ë changes to -i- if you add an ending after it. For instance, adding the dual ending -t to lómë (to express "a couple of nights") would presumably produce lómit rather than lómet. This would be because lómë comes from Primitive Elvish dōmi (LR:354), and -i never turned into -e except when final. Certain words in Namárië, lírinen and súrinen, are attested examples of this phenomenon: These are forms of lírë "song" and súrë "wind" (given independently in PE17:62, 67; the meaning of the ending -nen seen in lírinen and súrinen will be discussed in a later lesson). In the original version of this course, I wrote: “If this word originally ended in an -i that became -ë only later (and only when final), it may explain why in this word -ë seemingly turns into -i- before an ending.” Tolkien’s private notes, now published in PE17:64, seem to confirm that this is what he had in mind. We would then say that súrë has the stem súri-. 
There seems to be a similar variation involving the final vowel -o, that in some cases descend from final -u in Primitive Elvish; again the primitive quality of the vowel may be resurrected if an ending is added to it. For instance, rusco "fox" is said to have the stem ruscu- (VT41:10), so if we add the dual ending to speak of a "a couple of foxes", the resulting form should presumably be ruscut rather than ruscot.

The student should not despair, thinking that all sorts of strange things typically happen whenever you add an ending to a Quenya word, so that there is a great potential for making embarrassing mistakes (or at least very much extra stuff to memorize). Most Quenya words seem to be quite well-behaved, with no distinct "stem" form to remember; you just add the ending and that's it. Where a distinct stem-form is known to exist (or where we have good reason to suspect one), this will of course be indicated when I first present the word, if it is relevant for the exercises. 

ON THE SYNTAX OF THE NUMBER "2" 
In the original version of this course, I simply assumed that the number atta "two" behaves just as in English, but it turns out that Tolkien had something special in mind. According to information from VT49:45, if you speak of “two” something the noun appears uninflected, with no ending at all, and the word atta follows the noun. For "two ships" you would therefore say cirya atta, literally "ship two". (Only in "Old Quenya" would the first noun have dual inflection, hence ciryat atta.) In later Quenya, the dual form ciryat “a pair of ships” is apparently wholly distinct from cirya atta "two ships".  

Summary of Lesson Three: In addition to the plural form(s), Quenya also has a dual number used for a pair of things forming some kind of natural or logical couple. (We must assume that two things only casually associated would be denoted by a noun in conjunction with the numeral atta "two", which then follows the uninflected noun.) The dual is formed with one out of two endings: -t or -u (the latter displaces final vowels; the dual of alda "tree" is therefore aldu rather than aldau). One's first choice seems to be -t, but if the word this ending is to be added to already contains a t or a d, the alternative ending -u is preferred instead (for reasons of euphony – if you like, to avoid "crowding" the word with t's or similar sounds!) However, there seems to be a number of old, "fossilized" dual forms that end in -u even though there is no d or t in the word, such as veru "married pair" and peu "pair of lips". 
Quite a few Quenya words subtly change when endings are appended to them, e.g. talan "floor" turning into talam- in the plural form talami. We would then call talam- the stem form of talan. Similarly, the final vowels -o and -ë sometimes appear as -u- and -i-, respectively, if some ending is added; thus lómë "night" has the stem lómi-. In many cases, the stem-form echoes the older shape of words (sounds or combinations that could not survive at the end of a word being preserved where not final), though the stem-form may also represent a contraction.

VOCABULARY

atta "two"
hen (hend-) "eye"
ranco "arm"
ando "gate"
cirya "ship"
aiwë "bird"
talan (talam-) "floor"
nér (ner-) "man" (adult male of any sentient race – Elvish, mortal or otherwise)
nís (niss-) "woman" (similarly: adult female of any sentient race)
sar (sard-) "stone" (a small stone – not "stone" as a substance or material) 
alda "tree"
oron (oront-) "mountain"

EXERCISES

1. Translate into English:

A. Hendu
B. Hen atta (and answer: what is the difference between this and hendu above?)  
C. Aldu
D. Alda atta (and answer again: what is the difference between this and Aldu above?)
E. Er nér ar er nís.
F. I sardi.
G. Talami.
H. Oronti.

2. Translate into Quenya: 

I. Two ships (just any two ships that happen to be seen together)
J. Two ships (that happen to be sister ships)
K. Arms (the two arms of one person)
L. Two mountains (within the same range; Twin Peaks, if you like – use a dual form)
M. Double gate (use a dual form)
N. Two birds (that have formed a pair)
O. Two birds (just any two birds)
P. Men and women.  

LESSON FOUR
The Adjective. The Copula. Adjectival agreement in number.  

The vocabulary of any language can be separated into various classes of words – various parts of speech. Tolkien's languages were designed to be "definitely of a European kind in style and structure" (Letters:175), so the parts of speech they contain are not very exotic, but ought to be quite familiar to any schoolchild in Europe or America. We have already mentioned the nouns, which by a somewhat simplified definition are words denoting things. Now we will move on to the adjectives. 
	Adjectives are words that have assumed the special function of description. If you want to say that someone or something possesses a certain quality, you can often find an adjective that will do the job. In a sentence like the house is red, the word "red" is an adjective. It describes the house. There are adjectives for all sorts of qualities, quite useful if you want to say that someone or something is big, small, holy, blue, silly, rotten, beautiful, thin, nauseous, tall, wonderful, obnoxious or whatever the occasion demands.
One often distinguishes two different ways of using an adjective:
1. You can team it up with a noun which it then describes, resulting in phrases like tall men or (a/the) red book. Such phrases can then be inserted into a full sentence, like tall men scare me or the red book is mine, where the words tall, red simply provide extra information about their companion nouns. This is called using the adjective attributively. The quality in question is presented as an "attribute" of the noun, or is "attributed" to it (tall men – OK, then we know precisely what kind of men we are talking about here, the tall ones, their tallness being their "attribute"). 
2. But you may also construct sentences where the whole point is that someone or something possesses a specific quality. You don't just "presuppose" the tallness as when you speak of tall men – you want to say that the men are tall, that's the very piece of information you want to convey. This is called using an adjective predicatively: You choose a party you want to say something about, like the men in this case, and then add an adjective to tell what quality this party possesses. The adjective is then called the predicate of this sentence.
As the attentive reader already suspects from the example above, there is one more complication: You don't just say the men tall, but the men are tall. Actually sentences like the men tall would be quite acceptable in a great number of languages (and Quenya is actually one of them), but in English you have to slip in a word like are or is before the adjective when you use it as a predicate: The book is red. The men are tall. This "is/are" doesn't really add a whole lot of meaning here (there is a reason why so many languages manage without any corresponding word!), but it is used to "couple" the adjective with the words that tell us what we are really talking about here – like the book and the men in our example. Hence "is/are" is called a copula. In sentences like gold is beautiful, I am smart or stones are hard, it can be perceived the prime function of the copula (here variously manifesting as is, am and are) is simply to connect the following adjectives beautiful, smart, hard with the thing(s) or person we are talking about: gold, I, stones. The copula is an integral part of the predicate of the sentence. This is one of the most important constructions speakers or English have at their disposal when they want to say that X possesses the quality Y. 
Well, let's get down to Quenya here. When compared to the plethora of shapes that a noun can have, Quenya adjectives are quite restricted in form. The vast majority of Quenya adjectives end in one of two vowels -a or -ë. The latter ending is the less common and typically occurs in colour-adjectives: Ninquë "white", morë "black", carnë "red", varnë "brown" etc. When an adjective does not end in -a or -ë, it virtually always ends in -in, e.g. firin "dead", hwarin "crooked", melin "dear" or latin "open, free, cleared (of land)". The latter adjective is actually listed as latin(a) in Tolkien's writings (LR:368), evidently suggesting that latin is shortened from a longer form latina, both variants occurring in the language. (Perhaps all the adjectives in -in are to be considered shortened forms of full forms in -ina.) Adjectives that do not end in either -a, -ë or -in are extremely rare; there is at least teren "slender" – but even this adjective also has a longer form in -ë (terenë). <
Adjectives in -a are by far the most common type. The final vowel -a may appear by itself, as in lára "flat", but it is often part of a longer adjectival ending like -wa, -na (variant -da), -ima or -ya. Examples: helwa "(pale) blue", harna "wounded", melda "beloved, dear", melima "loveable", vanya "beautiful". The word Quenya itself is in its origin a ya-adjective meaning "Elvish, Quendian", though Tolkien decided that it came to be used only as a name of the High-elven language (Letters:176, WJ:360-361, 374). 
In Quenya as in English, an adjective can be directly combined with a noun, describing it. We have many attested examples of adjectives being used attributively like this; they include the phrases lintë yuldar "swift draughts" (Namárië), luini tellumar "blue vaults" (prose-style Namárië), fána cirya "a white ship" (Markirya), quantë tengwi "full signs" (a term used by early Elvish linguists; we needn't discuss its precise meaning here; see VT39:5). In these examples, the word order is the same as in English: adjective + noun. This is apparently the normal, preferred order. In Quenya, it is however also permissible to let the adjective follow the noun. For instance, Markirya has anar púrëa for "a bleared sun", literally "(a) sun bleared", and in LR:47 we have mallë téra, literally "road straight", for "a straight road" (cf. LR:43). Perhaps this word order is used if you want to emphasize the adjective: the context in LR:47 indicates that this is a straight road as opposed to a bent one. However, letting the adjective follow the noun may be the normal word order in the case of an adjectival "title" that is used in conjunction with a proper name: In UT:305 cf. 317 we have Elendil Voronda for "Elendil the Faithful" (the form found in UT:305 is actually Elendil Vorondo, because the phrase is inflected; we will return to the ending -o here seen in a later lesson). Presumably you could also use the more normal word-order and speak of voronda Elendil, but that – I guess – would simply be a more casual reference to "faithful Elendil", not meaning "Elendil the Faithful" with the adjective used as a regular title. It may be noted that Quenya, unlike English, does not insert the article before an adjective used as a title (not **Elendil i Voronda, at least not necessarily). 
What, then, about using adjectives as predicates, like "red" is the predicate of the sentence "the book is red"? (Contrast the attributive use of the adjective in a phrase like "the red book".) The adjective vanwa "lost" is used predicatively in Namárië: Vanwa ná...Valimar "lost is...Valimar" (a place in the Blessed Realm that Galadriel thought she would never see again). This sentence tells us that the Quenya copula "is" has the form ná. Plural "are" is nar or nár (VT49:9, 30). I have here used nar with a short a (occasionally, ná "is" also appears in the short form na).
It is generally assumed that these copulas would be used as in English, for instance like this: 

I parma ná carnë. "The book is red."
Ulundo ná úmëa. "A monster is evil."
I neri nar hallë. "The men are tall."

In this lesson as originally published in December 2000, I slipped in a warning at this point:

I should add, though, that due to the extreme scarcity of examples we can't be certain what the preferred word order really is. From the example vanwa ná...Valimar "lost is...Valimar" in Namárië one could argue that ná should follow the adjective, so that "the book is red" should rather be i parma carnë ná, "the book red is". It would be interesting to know if ná "is" would still follow vanwa "lost" if we relocated Valimar to the beginning of the sentence; should "Valimar is lost" be Valimar ná vanwa, English-style, or perhaps Valimar vanwa ná? In the examples above and the exercises below I have organized the sentences using the "English" word order, but Tolkien may have had something more exotic up his sleeve. There is no way of telling before more material is published.

More material has indeed appeared since. Apparently it is indeed permissible to place ná at the end of the sentence, as in the example lá caritas...alasaila ná (literally, "not to do it unwise is" – VT42:34). Yet the same article that provides this example also cites the formula "A ná calima lá B" (literally, "A is bright beyond B") as the Quenya way of expressing "A is brighter than B" (VT42:32). Notice that this formula employs an English-style word-order, with ná "is" preceding rather than following calima "bright". So it seems that sentences like i parma ná carnë, word by word corresponding to English "the book is red", are indeed possible. An example published in 2002 has the short form na, but does use an English-style word order: Elyë na manna "thou art blessed" (VT43:26). Apparently one could just as well say elyë manna na (or ná), or one could say elyë manna "thou [art] blessed" without explicitly expressing the copula at all: 2007 indeed saw the publication of material where Tolkien claims the copula is "not usually expressed where the meaning is clear", so that for "A is good" one would simply say A mára (VT49:9). 
If we are to take this at face value, the copula is probably somewhat overused in the exercises I wrote for this course, but it cannot be wrong to include it for maximum clarity (i.e. A ná mára or A mára ná). Notice, though, that Tolkien’s material provides numerous examples of copula-less sentences: Ilu vanya "the World [is] fair" (Fíriel's Song), maller raicar "roads [are] bent" (LR:47). The formula "A is bright beyond B" = "A is brighter than B" referred to above is actually cited as "A (ná) calima lá B" in VT42:32. As suggested by the parentheses, ná could be omitted. The example malle téra "a straight road" mentioned above could also be interpreted "a road [is] straight", if the context allowed it. The final version of Tolkien's Quenya translation of the Hail Mary, published in January 2002, leaves out several copulas: Aistana elyë, ar aistana i yávë mónalyo = "blessed [art] thou, and blessed [is] the fruit of thy womb".
	According to VT49:9, the word order that places the copula at the end is usual in impersonal constructions, e.g. mára ná – literally "good is", but used in the sense of "that is good" or "very well".
In Fíriel's Song (a pre-LotR text), the word for "is" appears as ye rather than ná or na, as in írima ye Númenor "lovely is Númenor" (LR:72). However, both the Qenya Lexicon (QL:64) and the Etymologies (LR:374) point to ná instead, and in Namárië we have this word attested in an actual text. In Fíriel's Song we also see an ending for "is", -ië, appended to adjectives and displacing their final vowel: hence in this song we have márië for "(it) is good", derived from the adjective mára "good". This ending -ië is transparently related to the independent word ye. I don't think the system of using the ending -ië for "is" was still valid in LotR-style Quenya, and I wouldn't recommend it to writers. The ending -ië has other meanings in later Quenya. 
We must assume that the copula ná, nar is not limited to combining nouns and adjectives, but can also be used to equate nouns: Parmar nar nati "books are things", Fëanáro ná Noldo "Fëanor is a Noldo". (Notice, by the way, that the proper Quenya form of Fëanor's name is Fëanáro; "Fëanor" is a Quenya-Sindarin hybrid form used in Middle-earth after his death.) Again it may be permissible to leave out the copula and retain the same meaning: Parmar nati, Fëanáro Noldo.

Adjectival agreement in number: Quenya adjectives must agree in number with the noun they describe. That is, if the noun is plural, the adjective must be, too; if the adjective describes several nouns it must also be plural, even if each of the nouns is singular. English makes no such distinction – its adjectives do not change – but it is not surprising that Tolkien built adjectival agreement in number into Quenya, since this was to be a highly inflected language. 
 We have no examples of what happens if an adjective is to agree with a noun in the dual form. It is generally assumed, though, that there are no special dual forms of adjectives, but only one plural (or should we say "non-singular") form. The Markirya poem indicates that there is no special form of adjectives to go with the "partitive plural" form in -li; an adjective describing a noun in -li simply appears in the normal plural form. This may support the theory that adjectives don't have a special dual form, either. 
How, then, is the plural form of adjectives constructed? From the examples now available, it can be seen that Tolkien experimented with various systems over the years. In early sources, adjectives in -a form their plural form by adding the ending -r, just like nouns in -a do. For instance, one very early "map" of Tolkien's imaginary world (actually depicted as a symbolic ship) includes a reference to I Nori Landar. This evidently means "The Wide Lands" (LT1:84-85; the adjective landa "wide" occurs in the Etymologies, entry LAD. Christopher Tolkien in LT1:85 suggests the translation "The Great Lands".) Here the plural noun nori "lands" is described by the adjective landa "wide" – another example of an attributive adjective following the noun, by the way – and since the noun is plural, the adjective takes the plural ending -r to agree with it. This way of forming plural adjectives was still valid as late as 1937 or slightly earlier; we have already quoted the example maller raicar "roads [are] bent" from LR:47, where the adjective raica "crooked, bent, wrong" (listed by itself in LR:383) is plural to agree with maller. 
However, this system cannot be recommended to writers; the evidence is that in LotR-style Quenya, it had been abandoned. Tolkien in a way reached back into the past and revived a system he had used in what may be the very first "Qenya" poem he ever wrote, Narqelion of 1915-16. In this poem, adjectives in -a form their plurals by means of the ending -i. For instance, the phrase sangar úmëai occurring in this poem apparently means "throngs large" = large throngs; the adjective úmëa "large" is listed in the early Qenya Lexicon. (QL:97 – in later Quenya, the word úmëa means "evil" or "abundant" instead, depending on what manuscript we read). Later, Tolkien however introduced one more complication: Adjectives in -a had plurals in -ai in archaic Quenya only. In Exilic Quenya, Quenya as spoken by the Noldor after they had returned to Middle-earth, -ai at the end of words of more than one syllable had been reduced to -ë. (Cf. WJ:407 regarding the ending -vë representing "archaic Q -vai".) So while the plural form of, say, quanta "full" was apparently quantai at the older stages of the language, it later became quantë. This form we have already met in one of the examples quoted above: quantë tengwi, "full signs", where quanta appears in the plural form to agree with tengwi "signs" (VT39:5). 
There is one special case to be considered: adjectives in -ëa, such as laurëa "golden". In archaic Quenya, we must assume that the plural form was simply laurëai. But when -ai later became -e, what would be ?laurëe did not prove to be a durable form. To avoid the cumbersome combination of two concomitant e's, the first of them was changed to i. Hence the plural form of laurëa in Exilic Quenya appears as laurië, as in the first line of Namárië: Ai! laurië lantar lassi súrinen... "Ah! golden fall the leaves in the wind..." – the adjective being plural to agree with the noun it describes, lassi "leaves". 
As for adjectives in -ë, they seem to behave like most nouns of the same shape: -ë becomes -i in the plural. We don't have very many examples, but the phrase luini tellumar "blue vaults" in the prose version of Namárië incorporates the plural form of an adjective luinë "blue" (which was long unattested in its singular form, but in recent years new publications have confirmed it; cf. PE17:66). Moreover, in the Etymologies Tolkien noted that the an adjective maitë "handy, skilled" has the plural form maisi (LR:371). Evidently the plural form was especially mentioned primarily to illustrate another point: that adjectives in -itë have plural forms in -isi, the consonant t turning into s before i. This particular idea seems to have been dropped later, though: In a much later, post-LotR source, Tolkien wrote hloníti tengwi, not ?hlonísi tengwi, for "phonetic signs" (WJ:395). So perhaps the plural form of maitë could simply be ?maiti as well. 
As for the plural form of adjectives ending in a consonant, such as firin "dead", we don't seem to have any late examples to guide us. It has traditionally been assumed that they form their plurals in -i, just like nouns of this shape do, and this still seems reasonably plausible. In one of Tolkien’s early "Qenya" grammars, such formations are mentioned; the adjective melin "dear" is said to have the plural form melindi (PE14:45; here Tolkien lets melin have the stem-form melind-). We will here assume that adjectives ending in a consonant do have plural forms in -i, just like nouns of the same form. So, say, "dead men" could be firini neri.
If any argument can be raised against this assumption, it is that adjectives in -in actually seem to be shortened forms of longer adjectives in -ina. As pointed out above, Tolkien quoted the adjective meaning "open, free, cleared (of land)" as latin(a), indicating double forms latin and latina. The plural form of latina should obviously be latinë, for older latinai. But what about latin? If this is merely a shortened form of latina, perhaps the plural form would still be latinë rather than latini? We cannot know for certain; in the exercises below I have followed the traditional assumption, using plurals in -i. Adjectives ending in a consonant are quite rare anyway, so this uncertainty does not greatly jeopardize the quality of our own Quenya texts. 
In what positions do adjectives agree in number? Attested examples like those already quoted, like luini tellumar "blue domes", would seem to indicate that an attributive adjective in front of the noun does show agreement. So does an attributive adjective following the noun; the Markirya poem has i fairi nécë for "the pale phantoms", or literally "the phantoms pale" (néca pl. nécë "vague, faint, dim to see", MC:223). An adjective separated from the noun it describes also agrees in number, hence laurëa "golden" appears in plural form laurië in the first line of Namárië, laurië lantar lassi "golden fall leaves" (the prose Namárië has lassi lantar laurië "leaves fall golden"). 
As for predicative adjectives, a late example is provided by Tolkien’s translation of the phrase "Elves were ambidextrous": Eldar ataformaiti, with ataformaiti as the plural form of ataformaitë "ambidextrous". (The copula "were" is here left out and understood, as is permissible.) Tolkien actually wrote many versions of the sentence in question, and sometimes ataformaitë appears in this uninflected form even where it modifies the plural noun Eldar. In most versions the adjective is however explicitly plural (VT49:6-8). 
So in short, we can conclude that adjectives agree in number with the nouns they describe "everywhere" – whether they appear before, after or separated from the noun, whether they are used attributively or predicatively. There are a few examples that don't quite fit in, though. Appendix E of the essay Quendi and Eldar of ca. 1960 contains several "well-behaved" examples of plural adjectives that are used attributively with the plural noun tengwi "signs", making up various phrases used by early Elvish linguists when they tried to analyze the structure of their tongue (as I said above, we needn't concern ourselves with the precise meaning of these terms here). Besides hloníti tengwi "phonetic signs" and quantë tengwi "full signs" already quoted (WJ:395, VT39:5), we have racinë tengwi "stripped signs" and penyë tengwi "lacking signs" (VT39:6; the singular of the latter, penya tengwë "a lacking sign", is attested: VT39:19). In these phrases the adjectives hlonítë "phonetic", quanta "full", racina "stripped, deprived" and penya "lacking, inadequate" all assume their plural forms, beautifully agreeing with tengwi "signs, elements, sounds". So far, so good. But then we turn to the draft material for Appendix E of Quendi and Eldar. Here Tolkien did not let the adjectives agree in number, and we have phrases like lehta tengwi "free/released elements", sarda tengwi "hard sounds" and tapta tengwi "impeded elements" (VT39:17). We would of course expect lehtë tengwi, sardë tengwi, taptë tengwi, but these are not found. Unless we are to assume that there are several classes of adjectives, some that agree in number and others that don't – and I think this is rather far-fetched – it seems that Tolkien in the draft material used a system whereby an attributive adjective immediately in front of its noun does not agree in number. But when he actually wrote the Appendix, he would seem to have introduced agreement in this position as well, and so we have for instance quantë tengwi rather than ?quanta tengwi for "full signs". Elvish grammar could change at lightening speed whenever Tolkien was in his "revision" mood, so this would not be surprising.
The last version of the Markirya poem, which Christopher Tolkien thinks was written at some point in the last decade of his father's life (1963-73), is also relevant here. In the phrase "fallen towers", Tolkien first wrote the adjective atalantëa "ruinous, downfallen" in its plural form atalantië, just like we would expect. Then, according to Christopher Tolkien, he mysteriously changed atalantië to the singular (or rather uninflected) form atalantëa, though the adjacent noun "towers" was left in the plural (MC:222). Again Tolkien seems to be experimenting with a system whereby attributive adjectives immediately in front of the noun they describe do not agree in number, but appear in their uninflected form. A similar system appears in Tolkien's writings on Westron, the "Common Speech" of Middle-earth (a language he only sketched). Perhaps he considered introducing such a system in Quenya as well, and we see this idea flickering on and off, so to speak, in his writings? 
However, the system I would recommend to writers is to let adjectives agree in number also in this position. In Namárië in LotR we have the phrase lintë yuldar "swift draughts", and in the interlinear translation in RGEO:66 Tolkien explicitly noted that lintë is a "pl." adjective. We must therefore conclude that lintë represents older lintai, the plural form of an adjective linta. (This singular form was long unattested, but turned up in material published in 2007; see PE17:63.) If an attributive adjective immediately in front of the noun it describes did not agree in number, "swift draughts" should have been ?linta yuldar instead. The source where Tolkien explicitly identified lintë as a plural form was published during his own lifetime, and moreover as late as in 1968, possibly postdating even the last version of Markirya. So his final decision seems to have been that adjectives do agree in number with their nouns also when the adjective appears immediately in front of the noun. One suspects that he spent many sleepless nights carefully considering the various pros and cons in this important question. 

NOTE ON ADJECTIVES USED AS NOUNS: As described above, Tolkien at one stage had adjectives in -a form their plurals in -ar, but later he replaced this with -ë (for older -ai). However, adjectives in -a may still have plural forms in -ar if they are used as nouns, because in such a case they are naturally inflected as nouns. Tolkien noted that instead of saying penyë tengwi "lacking signs" the Elves might simply refer to the penyar or "lacking ones" – "using [the adjective] penya as a technical noun" (VT39:19). A more well-known example is provided by the adjective vanya "fair, beautiful"; this would normally have the plural form vanyë (e.g. vanyë nissi "beautiful women"). However, the adjective vanya can also be used as a noun, "a Vanya" or "Fair One", which was the word used of a member of the First Clan of the Eldar. Then the whole clan is of course called the Vanyar, as in the Silmarillion chapter 3: "The Vanyar were [Ingwë's] people; they are the Fair Elves." Using another (but related) adjective "beautiful", namely vanima, Treebeard employed another noun-style plural when he greeted Celeborn and Galadriel as a vanimar "o beautiful ones" (the translation given in Letters:308).
Adjectives in -ë would however have their usual plural form in -i even if they are used as nouns, since most nouns in -ë also form their plurals in -i. 

Summary of Lesson Four: Adjectives are words used to describe various qualities, such as "tall" or "beautiful". They can be combined with nouns, making up phrases like "(a/the) red book" or "tall men", where the adjectives "red" and "tall" describe the nouns "book" and "men" directly; this is called using an adjective attributively. But adjectives can also be used in sentences like "the book is red" or "the men are tall", where the whole point of the sentence is to ascribe a certain quality to a noun; here the adjective is used as a predicate. In such cases English slips in a copula, like "is" or "are" in these examples, to clarify the relationship between the noun and the adjective. Many languages do without this extra device (one would just say what corresponds to "the book red"), and this it permissible in Quenya as well, but the explicit copula ná "is"/nar "are" also occurs in the material. – Most Quenya adjectives end in the vowel -a, some also in -ë; the only ones that end in a consonant are a few that nearly always have the ending -in (apparently shortened from -ina). Quenya adjectives agree in number; if an adjective describes a plural noun or more than one noun, the adjective must be plural as well. Adjectives in -a have plural forms in -ë (for older -ai); notice that if the adjective ends in -ëa it forms its plural in -ië (to avoid -ëe). Adjectives in -ë have plural forms in -i; as for the few adjectives ending in a consonant is normally assumed that they would add -i in the plural. 

Note on the syntax of numbers: From neldë "3" onwards, a number used in conjunction with a noun follows it, and the noun is inflected for plural. Atta "two" also follows the noun, but the noun is uninflected. Hence e.g. elen atta "two stars" (literally "star two"), but "three stars" is eleni neldë (VT49:45). Notice the explicitly plural form eleni.  

VOCABULARY
Except for the two first items, all of these are adjectives. Don't worry about the other words occurring in the exercises below; those you have already memorized carefully, following my instructions in Lesson Two. Right?

neldë "three"
ná "is" (nar "are")
vanya "beautiful, fair"
alta "big, great" (apparently used of physical size only)
calima "bright"
taura "mighty"
saila "wise" (we will use this form found in late material; a pre-LotR source has saira instead)
úmëa "evil"
carnë "red" (we suspect that Tolkien the Devout Catholic was thinking about cardinals with their red attires; the Italian word carne = "[red] meat" may also be relevant here...) 
ninquë "white"
morë "black" (cf. the first element of Sindarin Mordor = Black Land)
firin "dead"

NOTE: We here use the word úmëa for “evil” to practice the behaviour of the relatively rare adjectives in -ëa; though the more usual word for “evil” seems to be ulca.

EXERCISES

1. Translate into English:

A. Morë rocco.
B. Calimë hendu.
C. Firini neri neldë.
D. Vanyë aiwi.
E. Tári ná taura nís.
F. I oronti nar altë.
G. Aran taura (two possible translations!)
H. I nér ar i nís nar sailë. 

2. Translate into Quenya: 

I. The white gate.
J. A great ship.
K. The floor is red.
L. One black stone and three white stones.
M. Wise kings are mighty men.
N. The mighty man and the beautiful woman are evil. 
O. Elves are beautiful.
P. The Elves are a beautiful people.

LESSON FIVE
The Verb: Present tense and agreement in number. Subject/object. The superlative form of adjectives.

As I mentioned at the beginning of the previous lesson, the vocabulary of any language can be separated into various classes of words, or "parts of speech". So far we have explicitly discussed the nouns, which denote things, and adjectives, which are words used to describe nouns (linguists would find these definitions rather simplistic, but they will do for our purpose). Actually we have already touched on a three other parts of speech as well, without discussing them in depth. As part of Lesson Two you hopefully memorized the word nu "under", which is a preposition; prepositions are small words or "particles" like under, on, of, to, in, about etc., often used to provide information about spatial relationships (e.g. "under the tree" = nu i alda), though frequently they are used in more abstract contexts. With the word ar "and" we have also included the most typical representative of the conjunctions, words used to connect (or indeed "conjoin") other words, phrases or sentences, e.g. Anar ar Isil = "the sun and the moon". Still, no thorough discussion of prepositions or conjunctions as such seems necessary: in Quenya they seem to behave pretty much like their English equivalents, so for the most part you simply have to learn the corresponding Quenya words. 
	Another part of speech that we have already touched on is far more sophisticated and intriguing: the verb. We encountered one verb in the previous lesson: ná "is", with its plural form nar "are". As verbs go, this one is not very exciting; it is used simply to coordinate a noun with some sort of predicate that tells us what the noun "is": Aran ná taura, "a king is mighty", tasar ná alda "a willow is a tree". As I said in the previous lesson, the copula ná doesn't really provide much extra information here, except clarifying the relationship between the various elements of the sentence. Most other verbs (very nearly all other verbs, actually) are however full of meaning. They don't just tell us what someone or something "is", but what someone or something does. The Verb brings action into the language. 
In a sentence like "the Elf dances" it is easy to identify "dances" as the action-word, telling us what is going on here. And sure enough, "dances" is a form of the English verb to dance. This verb may appear in other forms as well; instead of "dances" we might say "danced", which moves the action into the past: "The Elf danced." This illustrates an important feature of verbs in European languages: the form of the verb gives information about when the action denoted takes place, in the present or in the past. Some languages also have special future forms. Tolkien built all of these features into Quenya.
The different "time-forms" of the verb are called various tenses; we speak of present tense, past tense and future tense. We will only deal with the present tense in this lesson, and return to the others later. (The trinity of present, past and future does not represent a full list of all the tenses there are. We will discuss a total of six different tenses in this course, and I would be very surprised if unpublished material does not describe even more tenses than the ones we know at present.)
	Here I should slip in a warning: We don't have much explicit information about the Quenya verb. In the so-called Plotz Letter, that Tolkien wrote to Dick Plotz at some point in the mid-sixties, he set out the declension of the noun. Apparently similar information about the verb was to follow; it never did. This is of course most unfortunate. Not that Tolkien took this information to his grave; we know that he did write about these matters, but the relevant writings have not been published. For the time being, we must for the most part try to figure out the grammatical rules by ourselves if we would like our Quenya poems to include verbs. Regarding the present tense, some scraps of information luckily appeared in Vinyar Tengwar #41, July 2000, and more recently (2007) new examples have appeared in VT49 and Parma Eldalamberon #17. Combining this info with some linguistic deduction, we can probably make out the main features of the system Tolkien had in mind.
As they appear in various sources, Quenya verbs seem to fall into two main categories (though there are some verbs in our corpus that don't readily fit into either, even if we exclude the early "Qenya" material where some really weird things are going on in the verbal system). The first and largest category is what can be termed A-stems, for they all end in -a. Another term for the same is derived verbs, for these verbs never represent a naked primitive "root-word", but are derived by adding endings to this root. The most frequent of these endings are -ya and -ta; much less frequently we see -na or just -a. Examples: 

calya- "to illuminate" (root KAL)
tulta- "to send for, to fetch, to summon" (root TUL)
harna- "to wound" (root SKAR; primitive initial sk- became h- in Quenya)
mapa- "to grasp, to seize" (root MAP)

(Convention has it that when you list verbal stems as such, you add a hyphen at the end; Tolkien usually does so in his writings. The "stem" of a verb is a basic form that we start from when deriving other forms, such as different tenses.)
	If these A-stems can be termed "derived verbs", the other category consists of the "non-derived" or primary verbs. These are verbs that display no such ending as -ya, -ta, -na or -a. The verbal stems in question can be termed "primary" or "basic" since they essentially represent a primitive root with no additions. For instance, the verb mat- "eat" comes directly from the root MAT- of similar meaning. Tac- "fasten" represents the root TAK- "fix, make fast". Tul- "come" can be identified with the root TUL- "come, approach, move towards" (contrast the derived verb tulta- "send for, summon, fetch" from the same root, derived by means of the ending -ta). In the case of the roots MEL- "love" and SIR- "flow", Tolkien didn't even bother to repeat the glosses for the Quenya verbs mel- and sir- (see LR:372, 385). 
When discussing Quenya verbs, we sometimes need to refer to the stem-vowel. This is the vowel of the root-word underlying the verb as it appears in Quenya. In the case of primary verbs like mel- "love", it is of course easy to identify the stem-vowel, since e is the only vowel there is (and sure enough, this is also the vowel of the underlying root MEL-). In the case of derived verbs like pusta- "stop" or ora- "impel", the vowels of the added ending (here -ta and -a) do not count as stem-vowels. Pusta-, for instance, is derived from a root PUS, and its stem-vowel is therefore u, not a. In the vast majority of cases, the stem-vowel is simply the first vowel of the verb (but not necessarily so, there may be some prefixed element). 
With this we have the necessary terms in place and can finally start discussing the formation of the present tense. To start with the primary verbs, what seems to be the present tense of the verb mel- "love" is attested in LR:61, Elendil telling his son Herendil: Yonya inyë tye-méla, "I too, my son, I love thee". Here we have the verb describing a present or on-going (in this case quite permanent) action. Another example of a present-tense primary verb can apparently be found in the LotR itself, in the famous greeting elen síla lúmenn' omentielvo, "a star shines [or, is shining] upon the hour of our meeting". Síla would seem to be the present tense of a verb sil- "shine (with white or silver light)", listed in the Silmarillion Appendix. Méla and síla show the same relationship to the simple verbal stems mel- and sil-: the present-tense forms are derived by lengthening the stem-vowel (this is denoted by supplying an accent, of course) and adding the ending -a. This conclusion is supported by an example from VT41:13: The verb quet- "speak, say" there appears in the present tense quéta "is saying". 
	Though forms like méla and síla may occasionally be translated using the simple present tense in English, hence "love(s)" and "shines", is seems that the Quenya present tense properly denotes a continuous or ongoing action that is best translated using the English "is ...-ing" construction, as in the example quéta just quoted: this is "is saying" rather than just "says". The conclusion that the Quenya present tense properly denotes continuous actions is also supported by other evidence: The Quenya present tense of the primary verb mat- "eat" is nowhere attested in published material. However, Tolkien stated that mātā was "the stem of the continuous form", which could be translated "is eating" (VT39:9; ā here denotes long a, in Quenya spelt á). Tolkien actually put an asterisk in front of mātā to mark it as an "unattested" form, so this should evidently be taken as primitive Elvish rather than Quenya. How Quenya evolved from the primitive language can be inferred from many other examples, so we know that mātā would come out as máta. This form would seem to fall into the same pattern as méla, síla and quéta: lengthened stem-vowel and ending -a (and working backwards, we can deduce that Tolkien meant méla, síla, quéta to be descended from primitive Elvish mēlā, sīlā, kwētā). Presumably these are all "continuous" forms; just like primitive mātā "is eating" they apparently emphasize the ongoing nature of the action: Síla may literally be "is shining" rather than just "shines". Perhaps the lengthening of the stem-vowel somehow symbolizes this ongoing or "drawn-out" action. In the case of méla in the sentence inyë tye-méla, it is more natural to translate "I love you" rather than "I am loving you", but the latter would seem to be the most literal meaning. 

Then we must consider the second and larger category of verbs, the A-stems. In their case, the information from VT41 is of particular value. 

It seems that the A-stems form their present tense by somewhat the same rule as the primary verbs, but the rule needs a little "adaptation" to fit the shape of an A-stem verb One attested example is the verb ora- "urge" or "impel". VT41:13, 18 indicates that its present tense is órëa ("is urging"). As in the case of primary verbs, the stem-vowel has been lengthened and the ending -a has been added. There is one complication, though: since the verbal stem ora- already ended in -a, this vowel is changed to e so as to avoid two a's in sequence: What would be óra-a manifests as órëa. Hence we must conclude that verbs like mapa- "grasp, seize" and lala- "laugh" appear as mápëa, lálëa in the present tense. 
Short A-stems like ora- or mapa- are however of a rather unusual shape, since they add only the simple vowel -a to the original root. As discussed above, A-stems where the final -a is only part of a longer derivational ending (most often -ya or -ta) are much more common. We have already quoted examples like calya- "to illuminate" and tulta- "to summon" (roots KAL, TUL). Such "complex" A-stems have a consonant cluster following the vowel of the original root, like ly and lt in these examples. When I first wrote this course, we had no attested examples of the present tense of verbs of this shape. I theorized that the final -a would still change to -ëa, but there would be no lengthening of the stem-vowel in front of a consonant cluster (that is, the present tense “is summoning” would be tultëa rather than ?túltëa). Forms that can be cited in favour of this theory were published in 2007: In PE17:17, the verb henta- “read” is said to have the “present continuative” form hentëa (presumably = “is reading”). Corresponding forms are also mentioned for other verbs: istëa from ista- “know”, nahtëa from nahta- (not glossed in PE17:17 but elsewhere defined as “slay”), ortëa from orta- (elsewhere glossed “rise, raise”), and melyëa from melya- (an undefined verb occurring nowhere else in published material, perhaps a longer variant of mel- “love”). Another source provides tengwëa as the present tense of tengwa- “to read” (VT49:55; this verb would seem to be more or less synonymous with henta- mentioned above; yet another word meaning “read” is cenda-). 
We must assume that this system also applies where there is a diphthong in the verbal stem, since like a vowel in front of a consonant cluster, a diphthong cannot be lengthened in any way. The present-tense forms of verbs like faina- "emit light" or auta- "pass" would presumably be fainëa, autëa.
This is not to say that each and every A-stem verb must form its present tense in -ëa, but it does seem to be a widespread pattern. (One divergent example representing a different pattern is mánata “is blessing”, which according to Carl F. Hostetter must be formed from a verb manta- “bless”, not itself attested in this form [VT49:39, 52, 55]. I have used the better-attested pattern in the exercises I made for this course.)

We now know enough to start building simple sentences: 
¤ Isil síla "the Moon is shining" (present tense síla formed from the primary verb sil- "shine")
¤ I Elda lálëa "the Elf is laughing" (present tense formed from the short A-stem lala- "laugh")
¤ Lassë lantëa "a leaf is falling" (present tense formed from the complex A-stem lanta- "fall"; we cannot have *lántëa paralleling lálëa because a long vowel cannot occur in front of a consonant cluster)

Some useful terms can be included here. Once you include a verb in the sentence, denoting some kind of action, you must normally devote another part of the sentence to telling who is doing this action. The party that does whatever the verb tells us is being done, constitutes the subject of the sentence. In a sentence like Isil síla "the Moon is shining", it is thus Isil "the Moon" that is the subject, since it is the Moon that does the shining the verb síla tells us about. In a sentence like i Elda máta "the Elf is eating", i Elda "the Elf" is the subject, since the Elf does the eating. 
This very sentence, i Elda máta, has possibilities. We can add one more element, like the noun massa "bread", and get i Elda máta massa "the Elf is eating bread". Now what is the function of this added word? It is the "target" of the verbal action, in this case what is eaten. The target of the verbal action is called the object, the passive counterpart of the active subject: The subject does something, but the object is what the subject does something to. The subject "subjects" the object to some kind of action. This "action" may of course be much less dramatic than "subject eats object" as in the example above. For instance, it can be as subtle as in the sentence "the subject sees the object" (fill in with other sense-verbs if you like), where the "action" of the subject does not physically affect the object in any way. That is not the point here. The basic idea of the subject-object dichotomy is simply that the subject does something to the object, though "does something to" must sometimes be understood in a wider sense.  
NOTE: Notice, though, that in sentences with the copula ná/nar "is/are", for instance i alda ná tasar "the tree is a willow", tasar "a willow" does not count as the object of i alda "the tree". I alda is the subject all right, since this is the element that "does" what little action there is in this sentence: "the tree is..." But tasar "a willow" is not the object, for in this sentence "the tree" does not do anything to "a willow" – and the hallmark of the object is that something is done to it. Rather than doing anything do a willow, the tree is a willow, and that is another thing altogether: Tasar is here the predicate of i alda, as we discussed in the previous lesson. But if we substitute máta "is eating" for ná "is", we are right back to a subject-verb-object construction: I alda máta tasar, "the tree is eating a willow". If you are unduly troubled by the fact that this sounds somewhat nonsensical, rest assured that the grammar is fine.  

In the case of some verbs, there can be no object. In the case of (say) lanta- "to fall", you can have a subject and say i Elda lantëa "the Elf is falling". Here the subject doesn't do anything to an object; it is just the subject itself that is doing something. With a verb like mat- "eat", it is kind of optional if you want to fill out the sentence with an object or not: I Elda máta (massa), "the Elf is eating (bread)"; this works as a complete sentence even without the object. But some verbs by their meaning demand an object, and the sentence would be felt to be incomplete without it. If we say i Elda mápëa "the Elf is seizing", this only raises the question "the Elf is seizing what?" and we must come up with an object to make the sentence complete.

In the Plotz letter, Tolkien indicated that in one variant of Quenya, so-called Book Quenya, nouns would have a special form if they function as objects. Singular nouns ending in a vowel would have this vowel lengthened (for instance, cirya "ship" would become ciryá if it appears as the object of a sentence), and nouns that normally employ the plural ending -r would switch to -i (so "ships", as object, would be ciryai instead of ciryar). This special "object" form, in linguistic terms the accusative case, was supposedly used in (archaic?) written Quenya. However, this accusative does not appear in the main samples of Quenya, such as Namárië or even the last version of the Markirya poem, which must be almost contemporaneous with the Plotz letter. Namárië, sung by Galadriel, is perhaps supposed to reflect the usage of spoken Third Age Quenya. By 2009, the sole published example of an actual phrase using the accusative is the command queta Quenyá!, “speak Quenya!”, occurring in PE17:137. Here the word Quenya is itself marked as the object of “speak” by the lengthening of its final vowel. Yet the same phrase is also given as queta Quenya! with no distinct accusative form (PE17:138).
Whatever the case, I do not use the distinct accusative in the exercises I have made for this course (or in my own Quenya compositions). It seems clear that the use of the accusative was far from universal, within or without the fictional context. So I would say cirya(r) for "ship(s)" even if the word appears as the object of a sentence.
 
With the terms subject and object in place, we can discuss another feature of the Quenya verb. Just like adjectives agree in number with the nouns they describe, verbs agree in number with their subjects. Let us have a closer look at the first line of Namárië, laurië lantar lassi "like gold fall the leaves", or literally "golden fall [the] leaves". Here the adjective laurëa "golden" appears in plural form laurië to agree in number with the plural noun lassi "leaves", as we discussed in the previous lesson. But the verb lanta- "to fall" must also agree with its plural subject lassi. The verb lanta therefore takes the ending -r. (The verb itself appears in the so-called aorist tense, to be discussed later; you can think of aorist lantar vs. present tense lantëar as corresponding to English "fall" vs. "are falling", respectively. Some would consider a form like lantëar speculative, but lantar is directly attested in Tolkien's writings.) The plural ending -r we have already met in the case of nouns, as in Eldar "Elves", but nouns may also have plurals in -i, depending on their shape. In the case of verbs, the plural ending -r seems to be universal, no matter what the verb looks like. The ending -r is not restricted to the present tense of verbs, but is seemingly used in all tenses, wherever a plural subject turns up.  
Essentially we have already met the verbal plural ending in the verb nar "are", the plural of ná "is". The plural form of ná is actually cited both as nar and as nár with the long vowel intact; in one case Tolkien apparently emended nár to nar (VT49:9). We will use nar with a short a here; it is less prone to confusion with the noun nár "flame". 
	More than one subject has the same effect on the verb as a (single) plural subject, the verb taking the ending -r in both instances:
	
	I arani mátar "the kings are eating" (sg. i aran máta "the king is eating")

I aran ar i tári mátar "the king and the queen are eating" (if you want the verb mat- "eat" to appear in singular present-tense form máta here, you must get rid of either the king or the queen so that there is just a single subject)

On the other hand, it has no effect on the verb if we have a plural object or multiple objects, e.g. i aran máta massa ar apsa "the king is eating bread and meat" (apsa "cooked food, meat"). The verb agrees in number with the subject only.
	In the original version of this course, I wrote at this point: 

It has generally been assumed that the verb has only one plural form, the ending -r being universal. In other words, the verb would take the ending -r not only where the subject noun appears in the "normal" plural (ending -r or -i), but also where it is dual (ending -u or -t) or appears in the "partitive plural" form (ending -li). However, we have no actual examples from LotR-style Quenya, and in particular I will not rule out the possibility that there may be a special dual form of the verb to go with dual subjects (ending -t as for most nouns, like Aldu sílat rather than Aldu sílar for "the Two Trees are shining"???) 

Material published in 2007 finally did turn up evidence that the dual ending -t can be added to verbs, and amusingly the very verb sil- “shine” occurs in the relevant Tolkien example, albeit in the future tense siluva “will shine” rather than the present tense síla as in my home-made example. For “two stars will shine” Tolkien wrote elen atta siluvat (VT49:44, 45). If there had been three or more stars, the verb would presumably have been plural, siluvar. Other attested verbs with the dual ending include carit “do” (VT49:16; this is an example of the so-called aorist tense, still to be discussed) and the copula nát (VT49:30) – that is, “are” with a dual subject. Compare ná “is”. 
	Exactly when the dual form of a verb (with the ending -t) should be used is somewhat unclear. The example elen atta siluvat “two stars will shine” shows that the dual form is used when the subject is a noun connected with the numeral atta “two”. Also, it seems reasonable to assume that if the subject is a noun in dual form the verb will also be dual, as in my constructed example Aldu sílat. What happens if there are two subjects connected by “and” is less clear. Above I wrote i aran ar i tári mátar for ”the king and the queen are eating”, but maybe this should actually be i aran ar i tári mátat to indicate that there are two subjects. It is even possible that a dual verb in -t would be used if the two subjects somehow form a pair, but a plural verb in -r if the two subjects are only casually related (as if “the king and the queen” in our example were not a couple, but just two heads of state meeting). Compare the use of the dual number in nouns. Elen atta siluvat remains the sole published Tolkien example of a sentence with a dual verb, so we cannot know how widely the ending -t is used. 
With three or more subjects, we must in any case assume that the verb is normally plural (ending -r).  

The last thing we must consider when discussing the verb is the question of word order. Where in the sentence does the verb fit in, really? English sentences generally list the subject, the verb and the object (if there is any object) in that order. The attentive reader will have noticed that most of the Quenya sentences above are organized in the same manner. This seems to be the most typical word order in Quenya prose. Examples of the subject and the verb in that order include lassi lantar "leaves fall" and mornië caita "darkness lies [upon the foaming waves]" – both from the prose version of Namárië. But there are also examples of the verb being placed first, e.g. Fingon's cry before the Nirnaeth Arnoediad: Auta i lómë!, literally "Passes the night", but translated "the night is passing!" in the Silmarillion ch. 20. Indeed both of the above-quoted examples of the order subject-verb from the prose Namárië instead show the order verb-subject in the poetic version in LotR: lantar lassi, caita mornië. In English, fronting the verb is one way of turning a declarative statement into a question, e.g. "Elves are beautiful" vs. "are Elves beautiful?", but this way of forming questions evidently doesn't work in Quenya. (Auta i lómë! "passes the night!" for "the night is passing!" is perhaps an example of dramatic style or affectionate speech; the verbal action is evidently considered more important than the subject that performs it. I suspect that in a less dramatic context, one would rather say i lómë auta.)
Namárië also provides an example of a sentence with both subject, verb and object: hísië untúpa Calaciryo míri, "mist [subject] covers [verb] the jewels of Calacirya [this whole phrase being the object]". Yet word order is again quite flexible, especially in poetry, as further examples from Namárië shows. We have object-subject-verb in the sentence máryat Elentári ortanë, literally "her hands (the) Starqueen raised" (in LotR translated "the Queen of the stars...has uplifted her hands"). The sentence ilyë tier undulávë lumbulë, literally "all paths downlicked (i.e. covered) shadow", has the order object-verb-subject (in LotR, Tolkien used the translation "all paths are drowned deep in shadow"). In the prose version of Namárië, Tolkien interestingly reorganized both of these to subject-verb-object constructions: Elentári ortanë máryat, lumbulë undulávë ilyë tier. This is our main basis for assuming that this is the normal order, preferred where there are no poetic or dramatic considerations to be made. 
Since I wrote the above, some explicit information on the subject has become available. Tolkien did write that “the classical and normal order was expressed subject, verb, object” (PE17:72). In older language, the verb used to come first, and maybe it is this older word order that occasionally pops up in poetry (lantar lassi “fall leaves”) and dramatic statements (auta i lómë! “passes the night!) 
In general, one must be careful about putting the object before the subject, for this could in some cases cause confusion as to which word is the object and which is the subject (since the commonest form of Quenya does not maintain a distinct accusative case to mark the object). Such inversions are however quite permissible when the subject is singular and the object is plural or vice versa. Then the verb, agreeing in number with the subject only, will indirectly identify it. In the sentence ilyë tier undulávë lumbulë we can readily tell that it must be lumbulë "shadow" and not ilyë tier "all paths" that is the subject, because the verb undulávë does not receive the ending -r to agree with the plural word tier. Hence this can't be the subject – but the singular noun lumbulë "shadow" can. Tolkien noted that “the poetic order metri gratia [that is, to accommodate the poetic metre] would be impossible” if the verb had not indicated which word is the subject (PM:72).

MORE ABOUT ADJECTIVES
In English and other European languages, adjectives have special forms that are used in comparison. In English, adjectives have a comparative form that is constructed by adding the ending -er, and a superlative form that is formed with the ending -est. For instance, the adjective tall has the comparative form taller and the superlative form tallest. (In the case of some adjectives, English however resorts to the independent words more and most instead of using the endings, e.g. more intelligent and most intelligent instead of intelligenter and intelligentest, which forms are perceived as cumbersome.) The function of these forms is to facilitate comparison between various parties. If we want to say that one party possesses the quality described by the adjective to a greater extent than some other party, we may use the comparative form: "Peter is taller than Paul." The superlative form is used if we want to say that one party possesses the quality in question more than all others that are considered: "Peter is the tallest boy in the class." 
In the first version of this Quenya lesson, as published in December 2000, I wrote: "But when it comes to Quenya, there is not much we can say. The published material includes absolutely no information about comparative forms; we don't even have an independent word for 'more'." Since then, the situation has happily changed. In 2007 we learnt that the word ambë can be used for "more" (PE17:91), but already in 2001 material touching on comparison was published in the journals Tyalië Tyelelliéva (#16) and Vinyar Tengwar. It turns out that a special formula is used in comparison: "A is brighter than B" may be expressed as "A ná calima lá B", literally "A is bright beyond B" (VT42:32). However, the word lá has other meanings beside "beyond", and it will be more practical to discuss and practice its use in comparison in a later lesson ("The various uses of lá", Lesson Eighteen). 
We will here focus on the superlative form of adjectives instead. It is somewhat disquieting to notice that when Tolkien was making a Quenya translation of the Litany of Loreto, he broke off before translating the Latin superlative form purissima "most pure" – as if he himself was not quite certain how to render it (VT44:19). Still, we know some things about Quenya superlative forms. In Letters:278-279, Tolkien explained the adjectival form ancalima occurring in LotR. Translating it as "exceedingly bright", he stated that this is calima "shining brilliant" with the element an- added, the latter being a "superlative or intensive prefix". For this reason, many writers have used the prefix an- as the equivalent of the English ending -est, to construct the superlative form of adjectives – e.g. anvanya "fairest" from vanya "fair, beautiful". When I first wrote this course, ancalima however remained the sole attested example of an- used in this sense. Since 2000 we have luckily had more examples and more detailed information about it. In 2003 the journal Vinyar Tengwar published a discussion of this prefix with more examples (VT45:5, 36), which tended to confirm the speculations I had presented in the original course (for instance, that an- would assimilate as as- if prefixed to an adjective in s-). In 2007 the matter was further complicated by the publication of some of Tolkien’s post-LotR notes – partly agreeing with, partly contradicting the his material.
If we go with the post-LotR material (which has the advantage that Tolkien must have intended it to be compatible with his published epic), the superlative prefix is basically am-, but before many consonants this is changed to an- for phonological reasons.
According to Tolkien’s late insights as reproduced in PE17:92-94, the prefix in Third Age Quenya appears as an- before c-, f-, h-, s-, t-, v- and qu. The word ancalima “most bright, very bright” is itself an example of this. Notice that by this scheme, the prefix appears as an- and not in the form as- before s- (as Tolkien had envisaged earlier, and as I also theorized in the first version of this course).
Before c (and qu = cw), the prefix is technically añ- (if we let ñ represent English ng as in ring), but this is also normally written simply an- in the normal English-letter spelling of Quenya. 
The prefix is however preserved in its basic form am- before vowels and before m, p, and n. Presumably we would also see am- before y-, since my is a perfectly acceptable Quenya combination in the middle of words (cf. a verb like himya- “stick to”). 
Before l and r, the prefix was in “later use” expanded to ama- (PE17:92). (This again differs from Tolkien’s earlier system that would let an- assimilate to al-, ar- instead.) A variant ana- turns up before another m in the example anamirya “very beautiful” (mirya = “beautiful”, only used of works of art, PE17:165). This could be seen as an alternative to ammirya (to avoid the double m), with ama- altered to ana-, again to avoid the repetition of m. But in some sources Tolkien does presuppose that the basic form of the superlative prefix is indeed an- and not am-. For details, see note below (students who think the whole thing is already complex enough can ignore it!)

NOTE ON AN-: Another system is described in VT45:36. In this pre-LotR source, the basic form of the prefix really is an- (not am-). Before the consonants r-, l-, s-, the N of the prefix was to be assimilated, producing forms in arr-, all-, ass-, so that (for instance) saila “wise” would become assaila “most wise, very wise”.  This, indeed, is the system I theorized in the first version of this course. Later Tolkien would seem to have changed his mind; when the prefix became am- he decided it would appear as an- (not as-) before s-, and ama- can be used before l and r, as described above. More complex patterns were also envisioned; for instance, the prefix was to become in- before c  (which would obviously contradict the example ancalima from the LotR), but um- before “labial” consonants like p. Elsewhere, Tolkien however wrote that forms of the prefix with the vowel a were “generalized” (VT45:5).
There is some ambiguity as to whether an- just emphasizes the meaning of the adjective it is added to, like English “very”, or whether it does correspond to English “most” or the superlative in “-est”: Is ancalima to mean just “very bright” or actually “brightest”, implying an actual comparison with something less bright?  In one source (PE17:57), where Tolkien still gives an- (not am-) as the basic form of the prefix, he decided that it implies “very” rather than “most”. For the latter meaning, he would use ar- instead (hence arcalima “brightest” vs. ancalima “very bright”). Compare the translation given in Letters:385: “exceedingly bright”. But in the other notes referred to above, where the basic form of the prefix has become am-, we hear nothing more about this ar-. 
In the exercises of this course, I have adopted the system from PE17:92-94 described above (and I use the prefix to express the English superlative). However, the decision that the prefix is actually am- and only changes to an- before certain consonants was not necessarily a very firm or lasting idea in Tolkien’s conception of the language. As I demonstrated above, am- would be expected to remain in this form before y-; yet Tolkien in one text used an- before the adjective yára “old” to express “oldest” or perhaps “very old” (VT49:40).

Summary of Lesson Five: Two major categories of Quenya verbs are the primary verbs, that represent a primitive root with no additions, and the A-stems, that have added an ending including the vowel a to the original root (sometimes -a alone, but more commonly some longer ending like -ya or -ta). The primary verbs form their present tense by lengthening the stem-vowel and adding -a, e.g. síla "is shining" from sil- "to shine". The A-stems form their present tense by somewhat the same rule, but when the ending -a is added to such a stem (already ending in -a), what would be -aa is changed to -ëa. (This is at least the best-attested pattern, though some A-stems evidently follow different rules.) The stem-vowel is lengthened if there is no consonant cluster following (as in the example órëa from ora- "to impel"), but remains short before a consonant cluster; thus the continuative tense of henta- “read” is hentëa (not **héntëa). – A verb agrees with its subject in number, receiving the ending -r if the subject is plural: elen síla "a star is shining", eleni sílar "stars are shining". A verb with a dual subject will receive the ending -t instead.
	A superlative (or intensive) form of adjectives can be derived by adding the prefix am-, which however changes to an- before most consonants, as in ancalima "brightest" from calima "bright". The basic prefix am- is only preserved in this form before vowels, n-, m-, and (presumably) before y-; moreover, the long form ama- is preferred before l and r.

VOCABULARY

canta "four"
Nauco "Dwarf"
parma "book"
tiuca "thick, fat"
mapa- verb "grasp, seize"
tir- verb "watch, guard"
lala- verb "laugh" (so according to a late source, PM:359; in earlier material the verb lala-, of a quite different derivation, had the meaning "deny": See the entry LA in the Etymologies. We needn't discuss whether one obsoletes the other; here we will use lala- for "laugh" only.)
caita- verb "lie" (lie horizontally, not "tell a lie")
tulta- verb "summon"
linda- verb "sing" (cf. the word Ainulindalë or "Music [lit. Singing] of the Ainur") 
mat-  verb "eat"
cenda- verb "read" 

EXERCISES

1. Translate into English:

A. I nís lálëa.
B. I antiuca Nauco máta.
C. I tári tíra i aran.
D. I amalta oron ná taura.
E. I nér tultëa i anvanya vendë.
F. I aiwë lindëa.
G. I Naucor mápëar i Eldar canta.
H. I antaura aran ná saila. 

2. Translate into Quenya:

I. The woman is watching the greatest (/biggest) ship. 
J. The most evil (/evilest) men are dead.
K. The Elf is seizing the book.
L. Four men are lying under a tree.
M. The wisest Elf is reading a book. 
N. The king and the queen are reading the book.
O. The two birds are singing.
P. The four Dwarves are watching a bird.

EXTRA EXERCISE: Select the correct form of the prefix am-/an-/ama- and prefix it to the following adjectives to make them intensive/superlative forms: airë (“holy”), cotya (“hostile”), engwa (“sickly”), faica (“contemptible”), haira (“far, remote”), írima (“lovely”), linta (“swift”), melda (“dear”), orna (“hasty”), quanta (“full”), raica “wrong”, saila (“wise”), urda (“difficult”), varna (“safe”), yelwa (“loathsome”)

LESSON SIX
Past tense 

The previous lesson discussed the Quenya present tense, which is typically used to describe an on-going present action. However, Quenya has different tenses covering the entire trinity of past, present and future, and when recounting past events one will normally use the past tense.
	In English, very many past tense forms are formed by means of the ending -ed, e.g. filled as the past tense of the verb fill. In Quenya, most past tense forms are likewise formed by means of an ending added to the verbal stem. As far as we know, all past tense verbs end in the vowel -ë (though further endings, such as the plural ending -r that is used in the case of a plural subject, may of course be added after this vowel). In many cases, this vowel -ë is part of the ending -në, that seems to be the most general past tense ending in Quenya.
	As discussed in the previous lesson, most Quenya verbs are A-stems, meaning that they end in the vowel -a. The past tense forms of these verbs are typically constructed simply by adding the ending -në. For instance, the Etymologies mention a verb orta- "raise" (see the entry ORO), and in Namárië in LotR its past tense is seen to be ortanë. (The simplest translation of ortanë is of course "raised"; the somewhat free rendering in LotR employs the translation "has uplifted" instead, but Tolkien's interlinear translation in RGEO:67 reads "lifted up" – which is merely an alternative wording of "raised".) Other examples from Tolkien's notes:
	
	ora- "urge", past tense oranë "urged" (VT41:13, 18)
	hehta- "exclude", past tense hehtanë "excluded" (WJ:365)
	ulya- "pour", past tense ulyanë "poured" (Etym, entry ULU)
	sinta- "fade", past tense sintanë "faded" (Etym, entry THIN)

We may add the verb ahyanë "changed" (or "did change"), only attested like this in the past tense, as part of the question manen lambë Quendion ahyanë[?] "how did the language of the Elves change?" (PM:395). The verb "change" would seem to be ahya-.
	Regarding the verb ava- (apparently meaning "refuse, forbid"), Tolkien noted that its past tense avanë "revealed that it was not in origin a 'strong' or basic verbal stem". The latter seems to be more or less the same as a primary verb. He called avanë a "weak" past tense form (WJ:370). That probably goes for all the past tenses so far discussed. (What Tolkien would call a "strong" past tense is not quite clear. Perhaps he would use this term of the past tenses formed by means of nasal infixion – see below.)
	We must also consider the "basic" or "primary", ending-less verbs, verbs that unlike the A-stems do not have a final vowel: verbs like sil- "to shine", tir- "to watch", mat- "to eat". 
It seems that the ending -në can be used to form the past tense of some primary verbs as well. Tolkien mentioned tirnë as the past tense of the verb tir- "to watch" (Etym, entry TIR), and he also quoted tamnë as the past tense of the verb tam- "to tap" (Etym, entry TAM). In these cases, adding -në to the verbal stems in question does not produce impossible consonant clusters: Both rn and mn are permitted by Quenya phonology. In the first version of this course, I wrote at this point: “For this reason, the ending -në can probably also be added to verbal stems ending in -n, since double nn is likewise a wholly acceptable combination in Quenya. For instance, the past tense of the verb cen- 'to see' is presumably cennë 'saw', though we have no attested example of the past tense of a verb of this shape.” Since I wrote this, an example confirming this pattern has been published: The past tense of ten- “to arrive” is given as tennë in VT49. (Tolkien subsequently changed initial T to M: men-, past tense mennë.) 
	But whenever the stem of a basic verb ends in any consonant other than just -m, -n, or -r, simply adding the ending -në would produce consonant clusters that Quenya cannot have. The past tense forms of verbs like mat- "eat", top- "cover" or tac- "fasten" cannot be **matnë, **topnë, **tacnë, for clusters like tn, pn, cn are not found in the language. So what happens? 
	The difficult way of describing what occurs is to say that the n of the ending -në is replaced by nasal-infixion intruding before the last consonant of the verbal stem. What is "infixion"? We have already mentioned suffixes, elements that are added at the end of a word (like the plural ending -r, added to the noun Elda in its plural form Eldar), and prefixes, elements added at the beginning of a word (like the superlative prefix am-/an-, added to the adjective calima "bright" in its superlative form ancalima "brightest"). If you want to add something to a word, there are only so many places you can fit it in; if it is not to be prefixed or suffixed, the final option is to infix it, that is, jam it into the word. For instance, the verb mat- "to eat" has the past tense mantë "ate" (VT39:7), an infixed n turning up before the final consonant of the verbal stem (t becoming nt). Similarly, the verb hat- "break asunder" has the past tense hantë (Etym, entry SKAT).
	Before the consonant p, the infix takes the form m rather than n, so that the past tense of top- "to cover" is tompë (Etym, entry TOP). Before c, the infix appears as n (or technically ñ, see below), so that the past tense of tac- "to fasten" is tancë (Etym, entry TAK). The various forms of the infix – n, m or ñ, depending on the environment – are all nasals, sounds pronounced by making the stream of air from the lungs go out through the nose rather than the mouth. Hence nasal-infixion is a fitting term for this phonological process.
	As I said, that was the difficult way of stating what happens. Put more simply: if adding the past tense ending -në to a primary verb would result in any of the impossible clusters tn, cn, or pn, the n and the consonant before it switch places. Tn and cn simply become nt and nc; what would be np changes to mp to ease pronunciation. (Actually what would be nc similarly changes to ñc, if we use ñ for ng as in king as Tolkien sometimes did – but according to the spelling conventions here employed, ñc is represented simply as nc.) Hence:

	mat- "eat", past tense (**matnë >) mantë "ate"
	top- "cover", past tense (**topnë > **tonpë >) tompë "covered"
	tac- "fasten", past tense (**tacnë >) tancë "fastened"

This, at least, is an easy way to imagine it for pedagogical purposes. We cannot know for certain whether Tolkien imagined this to be the actual development – a form something like matnë actually occurring at an earlier stage, but later becoming mantë by swapping around the consonants t and n. The linguistic term for such transposing of two sounds is metathesis, and there are other examples of metathesized consonants in the imaginary evolution of Tolkien's languages (see for instance the Etymologies, entry KEL-). However, some clues suggest that Tolkien imagined these past tenses to reflect "genuine" nasal-infixion occurring already in primitive Elvish, not merely a later transposition of consonants. After all, he had one of his characters observe that "nasal-infixion is of considerable importance in Avallonian" (SD:433; Avallonian is another term for Quenya). But this is an academic question.
Primary verbs with -l as their final consonant must be given special attention. The verb vil- "to fly" is said to have the past tense villë (Etym, entry WIL). This double ll probably represents some combination of l and n. Perhaps villë is meant to represent older wilnë with the normal past tense ending (notice that in this case, v comes from older w: root WIL), the group ln turning into ll in Quenya. However, other examples suggest that older ln would rather produce ld in Quenya. It may well be that villë is meant to represent older winlë, that is, a nasal-infixed variant of the verb wil- (since nl also became ll in Quenya; for instance, the noun nellë "brook" is said to come from older nen-le: Etym, entry NEN). Whatever development Tolkien may have imagined, primary verbs with l as their final consonant seem to form their past tense form by adding -lë.

NOTE: In Telerin, the sister language of Quenya in the Blessed Realm, a verb formed from a root DEL ("go") is said to have the past tense delle: WJ:364. As pointed out by Ales Bican, this form probably descends from older denle (with nasal-infixion). If it descended from delne, it would likely have remained unchanged in Telerin, since the cluster ln is permitted in this language (cf. a Telerin word like elni "stars", WJ:362). This observation supports the view that past tenses with nasal-infixion did occur already in Primitive Elvish.

In the original version of this course, I wrote: "The system set out above is what I shall consider the 'regular' way of forming the past tense of a verb in Quenya." Calling something "regular" is often a daring thing to do when discussing a Tolkien-language, so let us rather say that it may be considered a fairly typical way of forming the past tense. That is, as long as a verb conforms with this system, I will not explicitly list its past tense when I first mention it. With very few exceptions (to be discussed below), the past tenses in the exercises below are constructed according to this system, so your task this time is to internalize the rules above. Some irregular forms will be discussed in later lessons, but even so, we will here survey certain "alternative" past tense formations (contrasting them with the more typical forms may actually be helpful in memorizing the normal system – but the student is not expected to memorize this survey as such). So do skim through as much as you can take of the stuff below, and proceed to the exercises when you've had enough.
	The past tense of primary verbs with -r as their final consonant is relatively well-attested: Attested examples include car- "make, do", pa.t. carnë (Etym, entry KAR),  tir- "watch", pa.t. tirnë (Etym, entry TIR) and tur- "govern", pa.t. turnë (Etym, entry TUR). So above we set out the rule that verbs of this shape have past tense forms that are constructed by adding the suffix -në. But a few verbs behave quite differently. The past tense of the verb rer- "sow" is not **rernë as we might expect, but rendë: See Etym, entry RED. The reason for this is precisely the fact that the original root-word was RED rather than **RER. Thus the verb rer- appeared as red- at an earlier stage, and then the past tense rendë is actually "regular" enough: it is simply formed from red- by means of nasal-infixion + the ending -ë (just like such a regular verb as quet- "say" has the pa.t. quentë). What slightly complicates matters is that in Quenya, original d only survived as part of the clusters ld, nd, and rd; in all other positions it was changed, and following a vowel it normally became r. Hence red- turned into rer-, while the past tense rendë remained unscathed by the phonological changes. In this perspective, the verb is strictly speaking not "irregular" at all; it just behaves differently because it has a special history – and this goes for very many of the "irregularities" in Quenya: As observed by his son, Tolkien's linguistic creations "imagine language not as 'pure structure', without 'before' or 'after', but as growth, in time" (LR:342). Tolkien clearly liked leaving in various testimonials to this imaginary age-long "growth".
We don't know very many verbs in -r that should have past tenses in -ndë because of their special history. From the Etymologies we must presumably include the verbs hyar- "cleave" and ser- "rest" (since these come from roots SYAD and SED, see the relevant entries in Etym – but Tolkien did not actually mention the past-tense forms hyandë and sendë). In a post-LotR source we have a verb nir- "press, thrust, force"; again no past tense form has been published, but since the stem is given as NID it should presumably be nindë rather than nirnë (VT41:17). More attested examples could be quoted from early "Qenya" material, but these writings do not have full authority as regards LotR-style Quenya. For instance, the 1915 Qenya Lexicon seems to include the verb nyar- "tell, relate" in this category (past tense nyandë, QL:68). But in later material, Tolkien derived this verb from a root NAR (entry NAR2 in Etym) rather than NAD, so now its past tense would presumably be regular (nyarnë).
	Some primary verbs are also seen to use a past tense formation that dispenses with any nasal sounds. The verb does receive the ending -ë, the vowel displayed by all past-tense forms, but instead of adding a nasal sound (infixed or as part of the ending -në), the stem-vowel of the verb is lengthened. For instance, the past tense of the verb lav- "lick" is seen to be lávë (attested in Namárië as part of the verb undulávë "down-licked", that is, "covered"). Likewise, the past tense of the negative verb um- "not do" or "not be" is said to be úmë (Etym, entry UGU/UMU; we will return to this peculiar verb in Lesson Nine). This past tense formation is quite common in the early Qenya Lexicon, and it also turns up in relatively late (but still pre-LotR) sources. Fíriel's Song of ca. 1936 agrees with the 1915 Lexicon that the past tense of the verb car- "make, do" is cárë (QL:45, LR:72; the spelling used in the sources is káre). However, according to the Etymologies (entry KAR), the past tense is carnë – and that is the form we will use here: The Etymologies is, at least in part, slightly younger than Firiel's Song. Following the pattern of cárë, some pre-LotR sources give túlë as the past tense of the verb tul- "come" (LR:47, SD:246), but villë as the past tense of vil- in the Etymologies suggests that the past tense "came" could just as well be tullë (representing older tulne or tunle). For "came" we will however stick to the attested form túlë in later lessons. 
It may seem that Tolkien eventually decided to limit the use of the past tense formation represented by túlë and cárë, though it was never wholly abandoned, as the form undulávë in Namárië in LotR demonstrates. We might actually have expected the past tense of lav- "lick" to be **lambë rather than lávë. A past tense form lambë would be constructed by nasal-infixion of the original root-word LAB (itself listed in Etym): In Quenya, original b normally became v following a vowel, but b persisted unchanged in the group mb. The Qenya Lexicon actually lists ambë as the past tense of a verb av- "depart" (QL:33); this may be an example of this phenomenon. However, **lambë as the past tense of lav- would clash with the noun lambë "tongue, language"; perhaps this is why Tolkien decided to go for the alternative formation lávë instead. Or should we generalize from lav- and let all Quenya primary verbs in -v form their past tense after the pattern of lávë?
	Luckily, these verbs are not very numerous. There is a distinct verb lav- meaning "yield, allow, grant" (root DAB, see Etym), possibly a verb tuv- "find" (verbal stem isolated from a longer form), plus tyav- as the verb "taste" (see entry KYAB in Etym). Should the past tense "tasted" be tyambë or tyávë? The latter past tense form is actually attested in the Qenya Lexicon (p. 49), but since the QL is seen to use this formation quite liberally compared to later Quenya, we cannot be sure that the information is valid for the later stages of Tolkien's conception. (Tyávë is attested in a post-LotR source as a noun "taste"; whether this argues against the same form being used as a past tense "tasted" is unclear. In the 1915 Lexicon, Tolkien did have similar-sounding nouns and verbal tenses coexisting; see QL:49, entry KUMU.)
	There are some curious cases where even longer, derived verbs (A-stems) drop their ending and have lávë-style past tenses derived directly from the ending-less root. One early example is the verb serta- "tie", past tense sérë (QL:83) rather than **sertanë as we might expect. These formations are far from uncommon in the 1915 Lexicon, but the idea was not wholly obsolete in later Quenya either: The Etymologies of the mid-thirties records that the verb onta- "beget, create" has two possible past tenses: beside the straightforward formation ontanë we also have the shorter form ónë (Etym, entry ONO). Another case of -ta dropping out in the pa.t. involves the verb caita- "to lie" (lie horizontally) introduced in the previous lesson. In the first version of this course, I assumed that its past tense was simply **caitanë – but material published in 2006 indicates that the pa.t. "lay" is actually cainë, formed by adding the past-tense ending directly to the original root KAY rather than to the derived form caita- (VT48:12-13).
The simplest A-stems, those that add the short ending -a to the root (and not a longer ending like -ta or -ya), may also drop this ending in some past tense formations. Above we quoted the QL form tyávë as an attested past tense of the verb tyav- "taste", but in the 1915 Lexicon, the verb "taste" is actually given as an A-stem tyava-: It is not a primary verb tyav- as it becomes in later sources (QL:49 vs. Etym, entry KYAB). Within the later system, we would expect an A-stem tyava- to have the past tense tyavanë, but the validity of either form in LotR-style Quenya is highly questionable. More commonly, the simplest A-stem verbs have past tenses that are "regular" enough – if you pretend that the final -a does not exist! Above we quoted oranë as an example of the regular past tense of a simple A-stem verb (ora- "urge"), but immediately after writing oranë, Tolkien actually added ornë as a parenthetic alternative (VT41:13). Of course, ornë would be a perfectly regular form if it were the past tense of a primary verb **or- (cf. for instance tur- "govern", pa.t. turnë). In effect, ora- may behave as a primary verb in the past tense, discarding its ending and jumping over into another class. The earliest material has examples of the same phenomenon: In the QL, the past tense forms of the verbs papa- "tremble" and pata- "rap, tap" are given as pampë, pantë (p. 72), not **papanë, **patanë as we would expect according to the "regular" system. The nasal-infixed past tense forms would be perfectly "regular" if we assume that in the past tense, the simple A-stem verbs papa- and pata- are masquerading as primary verbs **pap-, **pat-. Thus we cannot be certain whether the past tense of the verb mapa- "grasp, seize" should be mapanë or mampë; writers have used both. Since Tolkien seems to imply that the past tense of ora- can be both oranë and ornë, perhaps both are permissible. 

NOTE: In QL:59, Tolkien actually listed the past tense of mapa- as nampë (sic!) In the 1915 scenario, there were two variant roots, MAPA and NAPA, that shared the past tense nampë. In the original version of this course, I wrote: "Do we dare to assume that this idea was still valid decades later? The verb mapa- is listed in the Etymologies, but if Tolkien had still imagined its past tense to be as irregular as nampë, I tend to think that it would have been explicitly mentioned in Etym as well. Furthermore, in Etym there is no trace of the alternative root NAPA; we only find MAP (LR:371) corresponding to MAPA in the QL. But on the other hand, the form nampë is attested, so if you like it better than the unattested forms mapanë or mampë, feel free to use it." Since I wrote this, a root NAP "take" or "pick up" has turned up in Tolkien's late material (VT48:16), and if this is a later version of NAPA, it could strengthen the case for nampë as the pa.t. of mapa- in Tolkien's late versions of Quenya as well. As so often, we can't be quite sure what the Professor intended.

The verb lala- "laugh" is another example of one of the simplest A-stems. It may have the past tense lalanë, but it is also possible that it should behave as a primary verb in the past tense. But if so, we must take into account the fact that lala- is to be derived from older g-lada- (PM:359); this is one of the cases where an original d following a vowel turned into l rather than r (influenced by the l earlier in the word). So if lala- has a "short" past tense, it should probably not be lallë, but rather landë – derived from a nasal-infixed form of the original word g-lada-. On the other hand, the similar but distinct verb lala- "deny" found in the Etymologies (LR:367) never contained a d, so its past tense may well be lallë (unless it is lalanë, and I think I lean toward that form).
The Etymologies actually provides a few examples of even more complex A-stems that also drop their ending and in effect transform themselves into primary verbs in the past tense. The verb farya- "to suffice" is said to have the past tense farnë (Etym, entry PHAR); here the whole ending -ya drops out in the past tense, which is formed as if this were a primary verb **far-. Based on such a regular example as the one we quoted above – namely ulya- "pour", past tense ulyanë –  we would of course expect the past tense of ferya- to be **feryanë. But actually even our "regular" example ulya- also has an alternative past tense form ullë (Etym, entry ULU), and this is a particularly interesting example, for Tolkien indicated that the two past tenses ulyanë and ullë were not interchangeable. They had somewhat different meanings. There will be a fuller discussion of this in Lesson Ten; for now it suffices to say that I think most verbs in -ya would retain this ending when the past tense suffix -në is added. (But ullë as one past tense of ulya-, formed directly from ul- rather than the full form of the verb, would seem to confirm that primary verbs in -l normally have past tenses in -lë. Except for ullë, we only have the example vil- "fly", pa.t. villë to go on – so an extra, if indirect, confirmation of this pattern is very welcome!)
	Finally we will discuss a strange past tense formation that may occur in the case of verbs in -ta. Perhaps it should not be seen as irregular, for Tolkien actually described one such past tense as "regular...for a -ta verb of this class" (WJ:366). Nonetheless, its formation is less than straightforward. It is exemplified already in the earliest material: The 1915 Lexicon contains a verb lahta- (QL:50; the verb is not clearly glossed), but its past tense is not **lahtanë as we might expect: Instead we find lahantë. In other words, the verb lahta- is reworked into lahat- (the stem-vowel being repeated between the second and the third consonant, breaking up the consonant cluster, whereas the final -a is dropped), and the past tense lahantë is then formed from this lahat- by means of nasal-infixion and an added -ë, in itself a quite regular process familiar from primary verbs.
A much later example can be found in the Etymologies, where the verb orta- "rise, raise" is assigned a past tense form orontë (Etym, entry ORO). Since the "same" verb appears with the past tense ortanë in Namárië, I was originally skeptical about the “validity” of orontë in Tolkien's later versions of the language, but it turns out that both forms happily coexist with different shades of meaning: When the meaning is “rose, arose”, the past tense is orontë, but when the meaning is “raised, lifted up”, the past tense of orta- is simply ortanë (PE17:63-64).  But how do we get from orta- to orontë? 
	Our only real clue is what Tolkien wrote in WJ:366, where he somewhat surprisingly declared the form oantë – the past tense of auta- "go away, leave" – to be quite regular "for a -ta verb of this class". According to the "regular" system we have tried to make out, oantë instead of **autanë inevitably seems highly irregular. Tolkien derived the verb auta- from a root AWA (WJ:365), so its form in the primitive language is probably meant to be awatâ (my reconstruction). As primitive Elvish evolved towards Quenya as we know it, the second of two identical short vowels in concomitant syllables was often lost; hence awatâ would have been shortened to aw'tâ = autâ, and this in turn is the direct ancestor of Quenya auta-. But it seems that the old past tense of such a verb as awatâ, with a vowel immediately preceding the ending -tâ, was formed by nasal-infixion: Tolkien explicitly gave the past tense of the primitive verb as awantê (WJ:366; the spelling there used is actually áwa-n-tê, the hyphens before and after the n apparently emphasizing that it is an infix – whereas the accent on the initial á here only means that it is stressed, not that the vowel is long).
In the case of a word like awantê, the rule that the second of two identical short vowels is lost could not apply (no **aw'ntê), for such loss does not occur immediately in front of a consonant cluster – and the nasal-infixion has here produced a cluster nt. The "final" Quenya form of awantê, namely oantë, is somewhat obscured because the group awa later became oa in Quenya – but this change has nothing to do with the past tense formation. Now we can explain a form like orontë as the past tense of orta-: In the Etymologies, the original root is given as ORO (LR:379), so Tolkien probably meant the verb orta- to be descended from older orotâ- after the regular loss of the second vowel. But the past tense of this orotâ- was the nasal-infixed form orontê (both are my reconstructions), and this produced Quenya orontë, the second vowel here being preserved because of the following cluster nt (no one wants to say **orntë!) 
	There are some inconsistencies in the material about which verbs are to be assigned to this class. The Etymologies lists a verb atalta- "collapse, fall in" (entry TALÁT); no past tense is there mentioned, but in one text we have atalantë (LR:56, translated "down-fell"). This would seem to presuppose that the primitive forms were atalatâ- with past tense atalantê (my reconstructions, but cf. WJ:319 regarding ATALAT as a derivative form of the root TALAT). Yet in Tolkien's later texts the past tense of atalta- becomes ataltanë (LR:47 and SD:247), simply formed by adding the normal ending -në. So now Tolkien had presumably come to envision the primitive forms as ataltâ-, past tense atalta-nê (my reconstructions).
	If the apparent revision atalantë > ataltanë does not reflect changes in his ideas about the primitive Elvish forms, it may be that he imagined a development whereby the Eldar replaced the more complex past tense formations with simpler, analogical forms. Since I wrote this, explicit statements to this effect have indeed been published.

With this we conclude our survey of various strange or less-than-straightforward ways of forming the past tense; as I said above, the exercises below are meant to reflect the straightforward system instead. Caita- "to lie", pa.t. cainë, plus the double past tense of orta- “rise, raise” (see vocabulary list), are the sole "irregular" exceptions.” 
Remember that just like present-tense verbs, a past tense form receives the ending -r if it has a plural subject (or multiple subjects). For instance, the simplest past tense of the verb lanta- "fall" is lantanë, but with a plural subject it becomes lantaner (SD:246). Naturally, he diaeresis over the final -ë disappears, since the vowel is no longer final when the plural ending -r is added after it.

Summary of Lesson Six: While various irregular formations occur, it would seem that the past tense of Quenya verbs is typically formed according to these rules: A-stem verbs simply receive the ending -në. The "primary" or ending-less verbs can also receive this ending if their last consonant is -r or -m, probably also -n (no examples). If added to a primary verb in -l, the ending -në turns into -lë (resulting in a double ll, e.g. villë as the past tense of vil- "fly"). Primary verbs ending in one of the consonants p, t, c have past tenses constructed by adding the ending -ë combined with nasal-infixion intruding before the last consonant of the verbal stem; the infix manifests as m before p (hence tompë as the past tense of top- "cover"), otherwise as n (hence mantë as the past tense of mat- "eat").

VOCABULARY
lempë "five"
elen "star" 
harma "treasure" (noun)
sil- verb "shine" (with white or silver light, like star-shine or moon-shine)
hir- verb "find"
cap- verb "jump"
tec- verb "write"
quet- verb "speak, say"
mel- verb "love" (as friend; no Quenya word referring to erotic love between the sexes has been published)
cen- verb "see" (related to cenda- "read", which word is derived from a strengthened form of the same stem and meaning, basically, to watch closely). 
orta- verb "rise" (with special past tense form orontë = rose, arose). Orta- is also used = "raise, lift up"  (in this sense with a straightforward past tense form ortanë) 
harya- verb "possess; have" (related to the noun harma "treasure", basically referring to a "possession")

In addition, we repeat that the verb caita- "to lie" introduced in the previous lesson has the special pa.t. cainë instead of **caitanë.

EXERCISES

1. Translate into English (and practice your vocabulary at the same time; most of the words employed in exercises A-H were introduced in earlier lessons):

A. I nér cendanë i parma.
B. I Naucor manter.
C. I aran tultanë i tári.
D. Nís lindanë.
E. I vendi tirner i Elda.
F.  I roccor lempë cainer nu i alta tasar. 
G. I eleni siller.
H. I Nauco cennë rocco.

2. Translate into Quenya:

I. A Dwarf found the treasure.
J. The Elf spoke.
K. The horse jumped.
L. The king loved the Elves.
M. A man wrote five books.
N. The queen rose and lifted up a treasure.
O. The kings possessed great treasures.
P. The king and the queen summoned four Elves and five Dwarves.

LESSON SEVEN
Future tense and Aorist

THE FUTURE TENSE
In this lesson we will introduce two new tenses of the verb, the future and the aorist. We shall have to spend quite a few paragraphs trying to define the function of the latter, but the function of the future tense is easy enough to grasp: This tense is used with reference to future actions.
	English (unlike, say, French) has no distinct future tense. Instead of a unitary, inflectional form of the verb that only refers to future actions, English may fall back on longer phrases involving extra verbs like "shall" or "will": A past tense form like "came" has no one-word counterpart with future reference that would exemplify a true future tense – we only find circumlocutions like "shall come" or "will come" (or even "is going to come"). It is even possible to use the present tense with future reference: "He comes tomorrow." For this reason, linguists may refer to the English "present" tense as a non-past tense instead: It actually covers both present and future.
	These somewhat asymmetric features of English are avoided in Tolkien's Elvish. Languages like Quenya and Sindarin do possess true future-tense forms of the verb. For instance, the future tense of the verb hir- "find" appears near the end of Namárië, in the sentence nai elyë hiruva, "maybe thou shalt find [it]". The example hiruva "shall (shalt) find" includes what seems to be the normal – possibly universal – Quenya future tense marker: the ending -uva. This pattern is confirmed by the Markirya poem, that includes the examples cenuva "shall heed", tiruva "shall watch" and hlaruva "shall hear" (verbs cen- "see, behold, heed", tir- "watch", hlar- "hear"). In LR:63, Tolkien translates the verb queluva as "faileth", but this is only an example of the English "present" or non-past tense embracing the future as well. The context clearly indicates that the verbal action in question belongs to the future: Man tárë antáva nin Ilúvatar, Ilúvatar, enyárë tar i tyel írë Anarinya queluva? "What will Ilúvatar, O Ilúvatar, give me in that day beyond the end, when my Sun faileth [literally: shall fail]?"
	According to VT48:32, the ending -uva is associated with a primitive root UB "have in mind", so maybe the form originally described what some intelligent subject intends to do. However, in later Quenya it appears to simply describe future action with no further qualifications.
The examples listed so far exemplify the future tense of "primary" or ending-less verbs only. It seems that the ending -uva is also used in the case of the more numerous A-stem verbs, which however lose their final -a before the future tense ending is added (though there is at least one exception, see note below). In a post-LotR source, the future tense of the verb linda- "sing" appears as linduva (attested with a secondary ending here removed; see Taum Santoski's article in the October 1985 issue of the newsletter Beyond Bree). Also, what must be the future tense of the A-stem verb ora- "to urge, impel" is apparently given as oruva in another post-LotR source (VT41:13, 18; Tolkien actually wrote oruv·, but the editor points out that "the dot may be an inadvertently incomplete a": No Quenya word can end in -v.) Finally laituva appears (with some secondary endings attached) as the future tense of laita- "praise, bless" in the praise received by the Ringbearers at the Fields of Cormallen: The phrase andavë laituvalmet is not translated in the text of the LotR, but in Letters:308 we learn that it means "long shall we bless them", allowing us to isolate laituva = "shall bless".
NOTE: Notice, however, that a final -a does not drop out before the ending -uva when this -a is also the only vowel of the verbal stem. Thus, the future tense form of the copulas derived from the stem NÂ "to be" (cf. ná "is") is not **nuva, but nauva: This word for "will be" is attested in VT42:34.
It may be that Tolkien at one point imagined a somewhat more complicated system regarding the A-stems. Above we quoted a line from the pre-LotR Quenya text usually called Fíriel's Song, including antáva as the future tense of anta- "give" (LR:63, 72). Here Tolkien seems to be using a system whereby A-stem verbs form their future tense by lengthening the final -a to -á and adding the ending -va (shorter variant of -uva?) However, in light of the later examples linduva and oruva (instead of **lindáva, **oráva), we may conclude that Tolkien eventually decided to make -uva the more or less universal future tense marker: This ending simply causes the final -a of A-stems to drop out. My best guess is that in LotR-style Quenya, the future tense of anta- should be antuva rather than antáva, since Tolkien may seem to have simplified the system.
NOTE: If we turn to the very early "Qenya" grammars published in Parma Eldalamberon #14, we do indeed find a more ambiguous system. Some of the examples listed actually behave according to the system here reconstructed, like laptuva as the future tense of the (unglossed) verb lapta-. In other cases the -a is preserved before the ending -uva, as when the verb tanga- "beat" is given the future tense tangauva (both examples on p. 58). But these early ideas may have limited authority in later Quenya. In these early sources the future-tense ending is sometimes only -va; thus the verb tul- "come" is in one place given the future tense tulva (p. 28), though the form tuluva also emerges (p. 56), and it is the latter that appears in the more classical form of Quenya. Compare Húrin's cry during the Nirnaeth Arnoediad, as recorded in the Silmarillion: Aurë entuluva, "day shall come again" (en-tuluva "will re-come"!)

However, there is one possible complication in LotR-style Quenya as well, regarding the primary verbs. In Namárië in LotR occurs the future tense form enquantuva, "shall refill". Removing the prefix en- "re-", we have quantuva for "shall fill". This used to be taken as the future tense of a verb quanta- "to fill", related to the adjective quanta "full". Tolkien's earliest "Qenya" wordlist indeed lists such a verb (QL:78, there spelt qanta-). However, about half a decade after publishing LotR, Tolkien in the essay Quendi and Eldar seemingly cited the Quenya verb "to fill" as quat- (WJ:392). This would seem to be a primary verb, past tense presumably quantë (the pa.t. "qante" is actually given in QL:78, but there it is evidently only meant as a permissible shortening of the full form "qantane"; the regular past tense of a verb quanta- would be quantanë in later Quenya as well). If Tolkien had decided that the Quenya verb "to fill" is actually quat-, and its future tense is quantuva as Namárië would seem to indicate, maybe we should conclude that the same verbs that form their past tense with nasal-infixion + the ending -ë similarly form their future tense with nasal-infixion + the ending -uva? For instance, should the future tense of verbs like mat- "eat", top- "cover" and tac- "fasten" be mantuva "shall eat", tompuva "shall cover", tancuva "shall fasten"? (Compare the nasal-infixion in the past tense forms: mantë, tompë, tancë.) Or should we just add the ending -uva to the verbal stem without any further manipulations, hence matuva, topuva, tacuva instead? General principles would perhaps suggest the latter, but there remains the curious example of quantuva next to quat-. If there is to be no nasal-infixion in the future tense forms, we would have to accept that the verb "fill" can be both quanta- and quat-, with separate future tenses quantuva and quatuva.
I have used future tense forms with nasal-infixion in certain compositions of my own (and so have some people who put greater trust in my so-called "expert opinion" than they possibly should). But it may well be that Tolkien, mentioning the form quat- in WJ:392, actually intended this to be simply the way the underlying root KWATA manifests in Quenya. The exact wording in the source involves a reference to "the verb stem *KWATA, Q quat- 'fill'." If quat- is merely the way the ancient stem KWATA appears in Quenya, the actual verb "fill" could still be quanta- with future tense quantuva. (Compare for instance the entry PAT in the Etymologies, this root PAT producing the Quenya verb panta- "open". There is also an adjective panta "open", exactly paralleling quanta "full" next to the verb quanta- "fill"; perhaps the verb is derived from the adjective in both cases.)
Alternatively, quat- really is the verb "to fill" and not just an underlying root-form, but the future tense quantuva still presupposes a longer A-stem quanta-. Perhaps Tolkien had just plain forgotten that he had already published a form of the A-stem verb quanta- "fill", so that he was no longer free to change it to a primary verb quat-. (See PM:367-371 for an example of Tolkien working out some elaborate linguistic explanations that he had to scrap because he discovered that they conflicted with something he had already published in LotR – a fatal footnote in an Appendix forcing him to reject his nice new ideas!)  
	Thus, material presently available does not allow any certain conclusion in this matter. Writers can equally plausibly let verbs that show nasal infixion in the past tense do so also in the future tense (arguing from the quat-/quantuva pair that this is how the language works) or choose to explain quat- differently and form the future tense of any primary verb simply by adding the ending -uva (as in hir-/hiruva). As users of Quenya we can probably well afford to live with slightly different dialects regarding this detail, until future publications hopefully allow us to pick the right explanation.

It must be assumed that the future tense, like all other tenses, receives the ending -r where it occurs with a plural subject (e.g. elen siluva "a star will shine", but plural eleni siluvar "stars will shine").

THE AORIST
We have now discussed all the three tenses corresponding to the basic trinity of past, present, and future. Yet the Quenya verb has other tenses as well. One is called the aorist. The use of this term with reference to Quenya grammar was long disputed by some, but a Tolkien text that finally became available in July 2000 demonstrates that he had indeed invented a Quenya tense he called aorist (VT41:17).
While even people with no linguistic training readily understand what the past, present and future tenses are "for", it is hardly equally obvious what function the aorist tense has. (Some linguists would say that the aorist is strictly not a "tense" at all, according to certain definitions of that term; however, Tolkien did use the phrase "aorist tense" in VT41:17. We will not discuss this question here, wholly academic as it is.) So what, really, is an aorist?
To start with the word itself, it comes from Greek and literally means something like "unlimited" or "undetermined". The word was originally coined to describe a certain Greek form of the verb. In Greek this form contrasts with the past tense or "imperfect", the latter being used of a past action that was being done over a period of time (not just a momentary action). The aorist, on the other hand, has no such implications regarding the "duration" of the action. It just denotes a past action, period, with no further distinctions. When contrasted with the imperfect, the Greek aorist can be used for a momentary or clearly finished (not on-going) action. Another use of the Greek aorist is not particularly associated with the past: the aorist could be used to express general truths that are not limited to any specific time, like "sheep eat grass".
But this was the Greek aorist; the Quenya aorist is not used in quite the same way. Yet their functions do overlap in some respects, which must be the reason why Tolkien decided to employ this term from Greek grammar in the first place. We will try to determine the function of the Quenya aorist before we discuss how it is actually formed. For now, just take my word that the verbs in the examples I cite are aorists.
The Quenya aorist, like the Greek one, can be used to express "general truths". Our best example is a sentence occurring in WJ:391, where Elves are described as i carir quettar ómainen, "those who make words with voices". The aorist verb carir "make" here denotes a general habit of the Elves, covering past, present and future, for the Elves were making words throughout their history. The sentence polin quetë "I can speak" (VT41:6) includes another aorist verb, and again a "general truth" is presented, though in this case it relates only to the speaker: The meaning is of course "I can (always) speak", presenting a general ability, not just something that applies only to the present time (as if the speaker was dumb yesterday and may go dumb again tomorrow). So one important function of the Quenya aorist is that it is used, or rather can be used, with reference to verbal actions that transcend the here and now – rather describing some "timeless" truth or "general" situation. Writing about an aorist form, Tolkien noted that it is “indefinite in time” (VT49:23). 
In Namárië in LotR, Galadriel describes the gloomy state of Middle-earth using an aorist verb: sindanóriello caita mornië "out of a grey country darkness lies" (not "is lying"). The first words of Namárië also include an aorist: laurië lantar lassi, "like gold fall the leaves" – but this is not just a here-and-now description of leaves that are falling in the present tense: The following lines indicate that Galadriel describes the general situation in Middle-earth, the ever-recurring autumnal decay as she has been observing it throughout yéni únótimë, "long years uncountable". So our example "sheep eat grass" is probably best rendered into Quenya using an aorist verb: mámar matir salquë (singular "sheep" = máma, "grass" = salquë). As the example polin quetë "I can speak" demonstrates, the aorist can also be used to describe the abilities or habits of a single individual (i máma matë salquë = "the sheep eats grass").
It seems, however, that the Quenya aorist is not only used to describe "timeless truths". In some cases Tolkien himself seems to waver in the choice between the aorist and the present tense, the latter more typically describing an ongoing here-and-now situation. This hesitation on Tolkien's part suggest that these tenses are to some extent interchangeable. We have an aorist in the sentence órenya quetë nin "my heart tells me" (VT41:11), which is apparently quite synonymous with the alternative wording órenya quéta nin (VT41:13) employing a present tense form instead of an aorist. In the famous greeting elen síla lúmenn' omentielvo, "a star shines [or rather is shining] on the hour of our meeting", Tolkien finally decided to use a present tense form – but in earlier drafts, he used the aorist silë instead (RS:324). This greeting, having relevance for "our meeting" only, obviously cannot describe any "general truth" transcending time. Yet it is apparently permissible to use an aorist form even in such a context (though Tolkien decided that it was better to use the present tense).
It should be noted that the Quenya aorist is generally associated with the present, not with the past as in Greek. As Jerry Caveney wrote about Tolkien on the Elfling list (August 3, 2000):

In what seems to me typical of his creativeness and 'fun' in creating languages, he took the idea of the aorist aspect, and said, in effect, 'What if a language used the aorist to contrast present general (unlimited) actions to present continuative actions instead of using it to contrast past general actions to present continuative [as in classical Greek]?' The result is Tolkien's 'present aorist'. :)  He thus created a language that could distinguish continuative from general present actions simply, something classical Greek could not readily do, and which modern English and French, for example, can only do with extra words (I walk, I am walking; je marche, je suis en train de marcher). I suspect Tolkien enjoyed the elegance of this basic grammatical distinction, which I am not aware that any 'living' language has.

On the other hand, Carl F. Hostetter thinks the Quenya aorist is used to describe an action that is "punctual, habitual, or otherwise durationless" (VT41:15). This is probably correct in most cases, describing the typical function of the aorist. Yet some examples suggest that it may be better to say that whereas the present tense explicitly identifies an ongoing action, the Quenya aorist is simply unmarked as far as duration is concerned. It does not necessarily contrast with the continuative present tense; an aorist as such does not signal that a verbal action must be non-continuative or "durationless". Rather, as Caveney says, it is a "general" form, an all-purpose "present tense" that simply doesn't address the question of whether the action denoted is continuative, habitual or momentary. As Lukáë Novák observed on the Elfling list (August 1, 2000): "It seems that the aorist is so 'aoristos' [Greek: unlimited] that it can express almost everything." 
In the exclamation auta i lómë! "the night is passing" (Silmarillion ch. 20), the form auta would seem to be an aorist – yet Tolkien employs the translation "is passing" rather than "passes". So it would seem that the aorist can also be used for an ongoing action; it just isn't explicitly marked as such, grammatically speaking. If this is correct, it would be difficult to pin down any case where it is palpably wrong to replace the present tense with an aorist. Using the aorist would be simply a rather neutral way of talking about "present" actions – whether such action is actually ongoing, habitual, or merely an expression of "general truths". (Hence mámar matir salquë = "sheep eat grass" could also be understood as "sheep are eating grass", though for this meaning it is probably better – but hardly mandatory – to use the present tense: mátar.) In choosing between the aorist and the present tense, the only hard-and-fast rule one has to go on seems to be that the present tense should not be used with reference to entirely duration-less actions: The Quenya present tense is always used about some kind of continuous action. (Indeed some students would dispense with the term "present tense" and rather speak of the "continuative" form.) Beyond this one restriction, it seems that writers can choose quite freely between the aorist and the present tense.
Generally, however, it seems that the Quenya aorist corresponds to the English simple present (that shows either the ending -s or no ending at all, depending on the grammatical context). So Tolkien often translated Quenya aorists: e.g. topë "covers" (LR:394), macë "hews" (VT39:11), tirin "I watch" (LR:394). The Quenya present tense, on the other hand, is often best translated using the English "is... -ing" construction: tópa "is covering", máca "is hewing", tíran "I am watching". (The ending -n in the examples tirin/tíran, as well as in the form polin "I can" cited above, signifies "I": This suffix will be discussed in the next lesson.) In Lesson Five we pointed out that the present-tense form quéta denotes "is saying" rather than just "says"; conversely, the aorist quetë is usually "says" rather than "is saying". If the Quenya aorist is used somewhat like the English simple present tense, the aorist can be used to describe actions that are perceived as duration-less or habitual. For instance, an aorist like capë "jumps" may describe an action that is momentary ("he jumps") or habitual/characteristic ("any frog jumps"). 
Yet we also seem to have examples of Tolkien using the Quenya present/"continuous" tense instead of the aorist where English would still translate the verb in question as a simple present tense form, not as an "is ...-ing" construction. Consider this line from Namárië: hísië untúpa Calaciryo míri "mist covers the jewels of Calacirya". The present tense form untúpa describes a continuous action, more literally "is covering", but here Tolkien wrote "covers" instead. Presumably it would in no way have been wrong to use an aorist instead. After all, the mist covering the jewels of Calacirya is evidently perceived as a rather general state of things, not merely as an ongoing meteorological phenomenon that will soon pass! (The aorist would presumably be untupë – perhaps this form, stressed on the first rather than the penultimate syllable, just didn't fit the meter of Tolkien's poem? Anyhow, the latter element of this verb untup- seems to be a variant of top- in the Etymologies, both verbs meaning "cover".)
Another example of a present tense where we might expect to see an aorist can be found in Cirion's Oath (UT:305, 317), in the sentence i hárar mahalmassen mi Númen = "those who sit on thrones in the West". This refers to the Valar, and their being enthroned in the West must be considered a "general truth", just like it is a general truth that Elves make (aorist carir) words with voices. Yet Tolkien used what seems to be a present tense instead of an aorist: hára, here plural hárar, apparently suggesting a primary verb har- "to sit" (later confirmed in VT45:20). The plural aorist would probably be harir instead. It may be noted that while Tolkien translated hárar as "sit" in the running English translation in UT:305, he employed the more literal translation "are sitting" in his linguistic discussion in UT:317. Yet this seems to demonstrate that in Quenya, one can use the present tense as well as the aorist to describe also a general state of things. After all, the Valar's agelong state of being enthroned is also after a fashion "continuous". Cf. also the sentence yonya inyë tye-méla, "I too, my son, I love thee" (LR:61), where Tolkien uses a present tense instead of an aorist: Literally inyë tye-méla would seem to mean "I am loving you", but the reference must be to a quite "permanent" emotional state. If anyone else than Tolkien had written this, I would strongly advice the writer to use an aorist (melë) instead of méla – actually I still think the aorist would be better in this context, even though it was Tolkien who wrote this! But this example confirms that the present tense can also be used to describe "general truths" or more or less permanent situations, though this is more typically the domain of the aorist. 
I can well imagine that after this discussion, the student wonders if there is any point in maintaining the aorist and the present as distinct tenses, since their functions seem to overlap to such an extent – the only concrete rule being that if some kind of present action cannot in any way be seen as continuous, but is entirely duration-less, one must use the aorist. In just about all other contexts, either tense will apparently do, and the use of the aorist may not necessarily imply that an action has to be duration-less: For instance, it could also describe a "general truth", or indeed an ongoing action (as in auta = "is passing"). The context must be taken into consideration.
I can only say that I didn't make this language (another guy did...) Perhaps future publications will throw more light on whatever subtle distinctions Tolkien had in mind. But in the exercises I made for this course, I have used aorists for the English simple present, whereas I use the Quenya present tense for the English "is... -ing" construction. I do think writers transposing English usage to Quenya using this formula would get it right (or rather, wouldn't make palpable mistakes!) most of the time.

That was the function of the aorist, difficult though it is to pin down. Now we must discuss how the Quenya aorist is actually formed.

It seems that in Primitive Elvish, the rules for how the aorist is constructed were quite simple: In the case of a "derived" or A-stem verb, the aorist tense is simply identical to the verbal stem itself (irrespective of the fact that the aorist can of course receive such secondary endings as the plural marker -r, where such is required). No explicit tense-marker had to be present. Regarding the A-stems, this system persists in Quenya. The aorist of a verb like lanta- "to fall" is simply lanta "falls" (occurring in Namárië, there with the plural ending -r to agree with its plural subject "leaves": laurië lantar lassi, "golden fall [the] leaves").
In the case of the "primary" or ending-less verbs like mat- "to eat", they originally (in Primitive Elvish) formed their aorist tense by adding the ending -i: "Eats" apparently used to be mati. It is somewhat arguable whether the ending -i is here strictly an aorist tense-marker. If so, we might have expected to see it in the formation of A-stem aorists as well. Perhaps the rule for aorist formation in Primitive Elvish should rather be stated like this: The aorist is normally identical to the verbal stem, but in the case of "primary" or ending-less verbal stems, they receive the ending -i as a kind of stopgap to make up for the absence of any other ending. (I should add that this "simplified" view is not wholly unproblematic, but it works most of the time.) This system essentially persists in Quenya, but the phonological development occurring since Primitive Elvish has added one minor complication: Where final, the short -i of Primitive Elvish was at some point changed to -ë. (For instance, the Quenya word morë "black" is said to descend from primitive mori: See the entry MOR in the Etymologies. Where Quenya has a final -i, it is normally shortened from long -î in the primitive language.) Hence the old form mati "eats" had turned into matë in Quenya. But since this change only occurred where -i was final, we still see mati- if the aorist form is to receive any ending, such as -r in the case of a plural subject. Hence Nauco matë "a Dwarf eats", but with a plural subject Naucor matir "Dwarves eat". The ending "shielded" the final -i so that it was not really final at all, and therefore it did not change to -ë. 

NOTE 1: There are a few examples of what seems to be aorist forms where the ending -ë persists in the form -e- even if the aorist receives an ending. For instance, what must be the plural aorist of the verb ettul- "come forth" appears as ettuler (instead of the expected form ettulir) in SD:290. Perhaps Tolkien at one stage imagined that the primitive ending -i had become -e in all positions, even where it was not final – like ettulir being altered to ettuler on analogy with the ending-less form ettulë. But if so, this seems to have been just a passing "phase" in Tolkien's evolution of Quenya: In our best late source, the essay Quendi and Eldar of about 1960, the plural aorist of car- "do, make" appears as carir, not **carer (WJ:391). Hence Tolkien had reestablished the system he had also used a quarter of a century earlier, in the Etymologies. – The form ettuler is (apparently) translated "are at hand" in SD:290; a more literal translation would presumably be "are coming forth". This would confirm that it may be permissible to use the aorist also for ongoing actions; this tense is simply unmarked regarding the duration of the action, whereas the "present" or "continuous/continuative" tense explicitly identifies an action as ongoing. In our exercises, we will nonetheless use the aorist in the most "typical" way (to denote actions that are momentary or habitual/timeless).

NOTE 2: In the case of primary verbs, the aorist and the present tense differ not only regarding the ending. In the present tense, the stem-vowel is lengthened (máta "is eating"), whereas in the aorist, it stays short (matë "eats"). In the original version of this course, I mentioned the seeming aorist form tápë "stops, blocks" (Etym, entry TAP) as a strange exception because of the long vowel, commenting: "It is tempting to believe that the accent above a is just an ink-smear in Tolkien's manuscript." The manuscript has since been reexamined by Patrick Wynne and Carl F. Hostetter, and sure enough, the vowel should really be a short a (VT46:17). Thus tapë is a well-behaved aorist after all. – It may be noted that a few derived verbs (A-stems) include an "intrinsically" long vowel, e.g. cúna- "bend",  súya- "breathe" or móta- "labour, toil". To use the latter verb as an example, its aorist would presumably be móta, even though this may look like the present tense of a non-existing primary verb **mot-.

NOTE 3 (added September 2002): As I have pointed out earlier, one grammatical interpretation presented in this course has proved controversial: the notion that A-stem verbs have present-tense forms in -ëa. This admittedly depends on a particular interpretation of the one example órëa. Writers who do not want to use the controversial present-tense forms in -ëa may work around the problem by using the aorist instead. After all, Tolkien indicated that a form like auta can be translated "is passing" (not just "passes"), so the aorist can clearly cover the function of the English "is ...-ing" construction. Indeed some students of Quenya (who do not accept the -ëa theory) believe that in the case of A-stem verbs, there is no distinction between aorist and present tense: Only the context can decide whether auta is best translated "is passing" or simply "passes". This would make the Quenya verb system somewhat asymmetric, but at the present stage, it is simply impossible to reconstruct all of Tolkien's intentions with confidence.

Summary of Lesson Seven: In Quenya, the future tense is formed with the ending -uva. When added to an A-stem, the -a of the stem drops out before this ending; for instance, the future tense of the verb linda- "sing" is attested as linduva (not **lindauva). Quenya also has a tense termed aorist, which differs from the present tense in that the latter explicitly describes an on-going action. The aorist says nothing about the duration of the action, and while the use of an aorist form does not preclude that the action denoted is drawn-out or on-going, it seems that this tense is more typically used to describe duration-less, punctual, habitual, characteristic or altogether timeless actions. An example of an aorist is quetë = "speaks", as opposed to present tense quéta "is speaking". It may be that the Quenya aorist corresponds quite well to the English simple present tense ("speaks"), whereas the Quenya present tense rather corresponds to the English "is ...-ing" construction ("is speaking"). In the case of A-stem verbs, the aorist is identical to the verbal stem itself (irrespective of any secondary endings the aorist verb may receive, such as the plural ending -r). In the case of primary verbs, the aorist tense is formed by means of the ending -i, which however changes to -ë if no secondary ending (e.g. -r for plural) is to follow. Hence the aorist of mat- "to eat" is matë "eats" if there is no further ending added to the word, but otherwise we see mati- + ending (e.g. matir "eat" in the case of a plural subject).

VOCABULARY
enquë "six"
ilya, noun/adjective "all, every" ("every" before a singular noun, e.g. ilya Elda "every Elf", but ilya occurring by itself would rather mean "all"). Note that before a plural noun, this word also signifies "all" and is inflected for plural as a common adjective, hence becoming ilyë for older ilyai (cf. ilyë tier "all paths" in Namárië and ilyë mahalmar "all thrones" in Cirion's Oath)
rimba, adjective "numerous", here used for "many" (presumably becoming rimbë when used in conjunction with plural nouns, if it is inflected like any other adjective – hence e.g. rimbë rávi "many lions")
Atan "Man" (not "sentient male", which is nér, but Mortal Man as opposed to Immortal Elf, or Dwarf. Within Tolkien's mythos, this word came to be used especially of the Elf-friends of Beleriand and their descendants, the ones called Edain or Dúnedain in Sindarin. But even within the mythos, the word was originally used simply of humans as opposed to Elves, and so do we use it here. Cf. Ilúvatar's words in the Silmarillion, chapter 1: "Behold the Earth, which shall be a mansion for the Quendi and the Atani [Elves and Men]!")
ohtar "warrior"
rá (ráv-) "lion"
Ambar "the world" (the Quenya word probably does not require the article i; it is capitalized and apparently treated as a proper name)
hrávë "flesh"
macil "sword"
fir-, verb "die, expire" (cf. the adjective firin "dead")
tur-, verb "govern, control, wield"
or, preposition "over, above"

EXERCISES 

1. Translate into English:

A. Rimbë Naucor haryar harmar.
B. Anar ortuva ar i aiwi linduvar.
C. Neri enquë tiruvar i ando.
D. Ilya Atan firuva.
E. Ilyë Atani firir.
F. Saila nér cenda rimbë parmar.
G. Ilya elen silë or Ambar.
H. I Elda mapa i Nauco.

2. Translate into Quenya:

I. Every Elf and every Man.
J. The Elf will find the Dwarf.
K. The horse jumps over the Dwarf.
L. The king controls many warriors and will control (/rule) all the world.
M.  The king and the queen will read the book.
N. The warrior wields a sword.
O. All lions eat flesh.
P. Six lions are eating flesh.

LESSON EIGHT
Perfect tense. Pronominal endings -n(yë), -l(yë), -s.

THE PERFECT TENSE
In the original version of this course, I opened this lesson like this: "Tolkien certainly imagined the Quenya verb to have more tenses than the ones that appear in published material, but only one of these known tenses now remains to be discussed. The last known Quenya tense is the perfect. (There are still other forms of the verb that we shall have to discuss later, such as the infinitive, the gerund and the imperative, but these don't count as tenses.)"
	As expected, evidence for more tenses has turned up since this was written, and the information will be added to the later lessons of this course. But following the original disposition of the lessons, we will now concentrate on the perfect tense.
	Linguistically speaking, English has no perfect tense, just as English has no future tense. However, just as the language quite regularly expresses the idea of futurity by involving extra verbs like "shall" or "will", so the meaning of a true perfect tense is typically achieved by means of a circumlocution involving the verb "have". For instance, some typical English constructions doing the job of a perfect tense are seen in these sentences: "Peter has left", "the guests have eaten" (as opposed to a simple past tense: "Peter left", "the guests ate"). The perfect tense thus describes an action that itself is past, but by using the perfect tense one emphasizes that this past action is somehow still directly relevant for the present moment: "Peter has left [and he is still gone]", "the guests have eaten [and they are hopefully still satiated as we speak]", etc. – In English at least, such constructions may also be used to describe an action that started in the past and still goes on in the present moment: "The king has ruled (or, has been ruling) for many years."
	Quenya, unlike English, does have a true perfect tense – a unitary form of the verb that expresses this meaning, without circumlocutions and extra verbs. Several examples of this perfect tense occurs in LotR. Two of them are found in the chapter The Steward and the King in Volume 3. The first example is from Elendil's Declaration, repeated by Aragorn during his coronation (Viggo Mortensen even got to sing it!) It goes, in part: Et Eärello Endorenna utúlien = "Out of the Great Sea to Middle-earth I am come [or: I have come]." Removing the ending -n meaning "I", we find that the naked present tense "have/has come" is utúlië (according to the spelling conventions here employed, we must add a diaeresis to -e when it becomes final). Later in the same chapter, Aragorn finds the sapling of the White Tree, and exclaims: Utúvienyes! "I have found it!" (Actually he says yé! utúvienyes; according to VT47:31, the initial yé is an exclamation "lo!") Utúvienyes can be broken down as utúvie-nye-s "have found-I-it". We are thus left with utúvië as the perfect tense of a verb tuv- "find". (This verb is not otherwise attested, unless it can be equated with a verb tuvu- "receive" found in very early [1917] material; see GL:71. Whether this tuv- somehow differs in meaning from hir-, we cannot know. In the exercises of this course, I always use hir- for "find".)
	A post-LotR example of a Quenya perfect tense is found in VT39:9, Tolkien mentioning a form irícië "has twisted" – evidently the perfect tense of a primary verb ric- "twist" (not otherwise attested, but the Etymologies lists a primitive root RIK(H)- "jerk, sudden move"). As stated above, the form utúvië "has found" seems to presuppose a verb tuv- "find", and utúlië "has come" is the perfect tense of a verb tul- "come" that is attested in the Etymologies (entry TUL-). From these examples it is clear that the perfect tense is formed with the ending -ië, but the stem of the verb is also manipulated in other ways. In the case of primary verbs at least, the stem-vowel is lengthened: utúvië, utúlië, irícië.
The ardent student will remember that a similar lengthening occurs in the present tense (we would have túva "is finding", túla "is coming", ríca "is twisting"), but the perfect tense formation differs from the present tense not only in the fact that the former receives the ending -ië instead of -a. The perfect, alone of all known Quenya tenses, also receives a kind of prefix. This prefix is variable in form, for it is always the same as the stem-vowel (but short). Hence the verbs tuv- "find" and tul- "come" become utúvië and utúlië in the perfect (I underline the prefix), since their stem-vowel is u. On the other hand, the verb ric- "twist", with the stem-vowel i, turns into irícië in the perfect tense. Further examples (constructed by me, with underlining of stem-vowel and prefix):

	Stem-vowel A: mat- "eat" vs. amátië "has eaten"
	Stem-vowel E: cen- "see" vs. ecénië "has seen"
	Stem-vowel I: tir- "watch" vs. itírië "has watched"
	Stem-vowel O: not- "reckon" vs. onótië "has reckoned"
	Stem-vowel U: tur- "govern" vs. utúrië "has governed"

The prefix seen in the perfect tense is usually referred to as the augment. It may also be noted that the process of "copying" or "repeating" a part of a word, like the prefixing of stem-vowels seen here, is by a linguistic term called reduplication. So to use as many fancy words as possible, one feature of the Quenya perfect tense is that it includes a reduplicated stem-vowel that is prefixed as an augment.
	So far we have only used examples involving primary verbs. The evidence is actually extremely scarce regarding derived (A-stem) verbs. General principles suggest that they would drop the final -a before the ending -ië is added. For instance, the perfect tense of lala- "laugh" or mapa- "seize" is presumably alálië "has laughed", amápië "has seized". (Where such a verb has a long stem-vowel, it presumably just stays long in the perfect, where it would have been lengthened anyway. The augment should probably always be a short vowel, though; hence a verb like móta- "toil" may have the perfect tense omótië "has toiled".)
	However, very many A-stems have a consonant cluster following the stem-vowel, e.g. rn following the first A in a verb like harna- "wound". Since Quenya isn't fond of long vowels immediately in front of consonant clusters, we must assume that the lengthening of the stem-vowels simply does not occur in verbs of this shape. Otherwise the perfect tense would be formed according to the normal rules: reduplicate the stem-vowel as an augment and replace final -a with the ending -ië (so "has wounded" would be aharnië, not **ahárnië). We may have some attested examples of augment-less perfects that are seen to skip the lengthening of the stem-vowel where there is a consonant cluster following it (see below).
The numerous A-stems that end in -ya may be somewhat special. Take a verb like hanya- "understand". According to the rules so far given, the perfect "has understood" should be **ahanyië (or even **ahányië with a lengthened vowel, for it is rather unclear whether ny here counts as a consonant cluster or a unitary consonant – palatalized n like Spanish ñ). However, such a form is impossible, for the combination yi does not occur in Quenya.
We may have one example to guide us: In Namárië, there occurs a perfect tense avánië "has passed" (actually it appears in the plural: yéni avánier ve lintë yuldar lisse-miruvóreva = "years have passed like swift draughts of the sweet mead" – notice that the perfect, like other tenses, receives the ending -r when it occurs with a plural subject). In the essay Quendi and Eldar of ca. 1960, Tolkien explained avánië (or vánië without the augment) as being the perfect tense of the highly special verb auta- (WJ:366). But a quarter of a century earlier, in the Etymologies, he had listed a verb vanya- "go, depart, disappear" (see the entry WAN). It is eminently possible that when he actually wrote Namárië in the forties, he still thought of (a)vánië as the perfect tense of this verb vanya-, though he would later come up with another explanation (perhaps he wanted to eliminate the clash with the adjective vanya "fair", though the words would not be difficult to distinguish in context?) If so, Tolkien gave away how to treat verbs in -ya: In the perfect tense, the whole ending -ya is dropped before -ië is added, and what remains of the verb is treated just as if it were a primary verb. The perfect tense would therefore show both augment and lengthening of the stem-vowel, something like this:

hanya- "understand", perfect ahánië "has understood"
hilya- "follow", perfect ihílië "has followed"
telya- "finish", perfect etélië "has finished"
tulya- "lead", perfect utúlië "has led"

Of course, from the perfect forms you cannot determine with certainty what the original verb stem looks like. For instance, ihílië could also be the perfect of a primary verb **hil- or a short A-stem **hila-. In this case, no such verb is known to exist, but utúlië would be the perfect not only of tulya- "lead", but also of the distinct primary verb tul- "come". So one must apparently depend on the context to find out whether the perfect utúlië is formed from tulya- (so that it means "has led") or from tul- (so that it means "has come"). Same with the perfect ahárië: this form would mean "has possessed" if it is formed from harya, but "has sat, has been sitting" if it is the perfect of har- (a primary verb "sit", VT45:20).

Verbs including diphthongs: In some cases it may be somewhat difficult to determine what the stem-vowel is. Where a verb contains a diphthong in -i or -u, it is probably the first vowel of this diphthong that functions as an augment in the perfect tense. For instance, the perfect tense of verbs like taita- "prolong" or roita- "pursue" would probably be ataitië, oroitië, and the perfect tense of hauta- "cease, take a rest" is presumably ahautië. (The stem-vowel can hardly be lengthened when it's part of a diphthong, so we wouldn't expect to see **atáitië, **oróitië, **aháutië.) The original roots of these verbs are given in the Etymologies as TAY, ROY, KHAW, respectively; thus the proper stem-vowels of these verbs are seen to be A, O, A (again respectively). The final -i or -u seen in the Quenya diphthongs arise from original consonants -y and -w, so they cannot count as stem-vowels.

Unaugmented perfects: The material contains some examples of perfect-tense verbs that are constructed according to the rules set forth about, except that they do not have any augment prefixed. MR:250 (reproducing a post-LotR source) mentions a form fírië "has breathed forth" or in later usage "has died"; the augment is missing, though there is no reason to assume that the "full" form ifírië would be wrong. (The actual translation of fírië given in MR:350 is "she hath breathed forth", but no element meaning "she" can be identified; it is evidently understood.) The verb avánier "have passed" occurring in Namárië was actually vánier with no augment in the first edition of LotR; Tolkien supplied the augment in the second edition (1966). Before this, in the essay Quendi and Eldar of about 1960, he explained the unaugmented variant as being simply a variant form "appearing in verse" (WJ:366). Adding a syllable, as Tolkien did when introducing the full form avánier into the poem in 1966, actually doesn't fit the meter of Namárië very well – but he evidently decided to let grammatical accuracy take priority. 
In the other perfects occurring in LotR (utúlien, utúvienyes), the augment was present also in the first edition of 1954-55. Nonetheless, it seems that the whole idea of augmenting perfect-tense verbs appeared relatively late in Tolkien's evolution of Quenya. In early sources, the augment is missing. For instance, the phrase "the Eldar have come" appears as i·Eldar tulier in Tolkien's earliest "Qenya" (LT1:114, 270). The perfect of tul- here appearing features the same ending -ie- as in LotR-style Quenya, but the augment, as well as the lengthening of the stem-vowel, still have not been introduced into the language. Updating this sentence to LotR-style Quenya by implementing Tolkien's later revisions would probably produce Eldar utúlier (with an augmented perfect and no article before Eldar when it refers to the entire Elvish race).
In much later, but still pre-LotR, material, we find lantië (with a plural subject lantier) as a form of the verb lanta- "fall": LR:56. These forms would also seem to be unaugmented perfects, showing the ending -ië characteristic of this tense. True, Tolkien translated these forms as "fell" (lantië nu huinë "fell under shadow", ëari lantier "seas fell") as if they represent some kind of past tense form – not perfect "has/have fallen". However, he later noted that "the forms of past and perfect became progressively more closely associated in Quenya" (WJ:366). If this is to mean that Quenya might sometimes use the perfect where English would rather have a past tense, we can explain "fell" rather than "has/have fallen" as a possible translation of lantië/lantier. In SD:310, where Christopher Tolkien discusses a later version of the text in question, he records how his father changed lantier to lantaner – apparently substituting a true past tense form for a perfect-used-as-past. 
If lantier, sg. lantië, can indeed be considered a perfect tense form, it would confirm that the stem-vowel cannot be lengthened before a consonant cluster (not **lántië). Around this stage, Tolkien had certainly introduced such lengthening of the stem-vowel in the perfect; Fíriel's Song has cárier for "made" (or "they made", since the plural ending -r is included). This form of the verb car- "make, do" would seem to be another perfect-used-as-past, judging from the translation. Since the stem-vowel is lengthened in cárier, we must assume that it stays short in lantier for purely phonological reasons: no long vowels are allowed before a consonant cluster. – It may be that the absence of the augment in some early sources is simply due to the fact that Tolkien had not invented it yet; in LotR-style Quenya I would recommend alantië as the perfect tense of lanta- and acárië as the perfect of car-.
Nonetheless, the above-cited example fírië "has breathed forth, has expired" from a post-LotR source (MR:250) would seem to indicate that even in LotR-style Quenya, it is permissible to leave out the augment, constructing the perfect simply by means of the ending -ië + lengthening of the stem-vowel if there is no consonant cluster following it. Possibly unaugmented perfects are meant to be more common in spoken or informal language, and in poetry one can leave out the augment if the extra syllable would spoil the meter (hence vánier for avánier in Namárië, though Tolkien changed his mind in 1966 and introduced the full form). However, in the exercises I made for this course, all perfect-tense forms do include the augment.

Verbs beginning in vowels: Verbs beginning in a vowel pose a problem. Where a verb has a prefix beginning in a vowel, the augment may slip in between the prefix and the most basic verbal stem. For instance, the verb enyal- "recall, remember" is quite literally en-yal- "re-call", where yal- and not en- is the basic verbal stem incorporating the stem-vowel: In such a case I would expect the perfect to be enayálië. But some verbs begin in a vowel even without any prefixed element, e.g. anta- "give". In such a case the first vowel is also the stem-vowel, here occurring without any consonant in front of it. A verb may also include a prefix that happens to be identical to the stem-vowel, e.g. onot- "count up" (formed from not- "reckon" with a prefix o- meaning "together", hence onot- is literally "reckon together"). Other verbal stems already prefix the stem-vowel as a kind of intensification, e.g. atalta- "collapse, fall in" (vs. the verb talta- with a somewhat less harsh meaning: "slope, slip, slide down"). In all of these cases, it is difficult to prefix the stem-vowel as an augment in the perfect tense. We cannot well have a'antië for "has given", o'onótië for "has counted up", a'ataltië for "has collapsed". So what do we get instead?
One popular assumption has been that in such cases, the entire first syllable is reduplicated as an augment: Hence the perfect tense of a anta- "give" would be anantië (antantië?), and so on. With the publication of Vinyar Tengwar #41 in July 2000, this theory was almost confirmed. It turns out that in a late source, Tolkien listed orórië as the perfect tense of the verb ora- "urge" (VT41:13, 18; actually this form is not explicitly identified as the perfect tense, but it can hardly be anything else). Notice that the entire first syllable (or-) is reduplicated in the perfect: By reduplicating the consonant following the stem-vowel as well as the stem-vowel itself, the awkward form **o'órië is avoided; in orórië the reduplicated consonant r keeps the augment and the initial vowel of the verbal stem comfortably apart. Well and good – the only problem is that after writing down the form orórië, Tolkien struck it out! Whether this means that we are back on square one, or whether Tolkien struck out the form orórië not because he invalidated it but simply because he didn't feel like discussing the perfect tense of ora- there and then, none can say. 
Since it is rather unclear how we should add the augment to most verbs beginning in a vowel, I have simply avoided the perfect tense of such verbs in the exercises I made for this course. But since augmentless perfects seem to be permissible, the easiest solution must be to simply omit the augment in the case of such verbs: anta- "give" becoming antië "has given", onot- "count up" becoming onótië "has counted up" (though this is also the perfect of not- "reckon"!), and so on. After the rejected form orórië, Tolkien actually wrote orië. Was this a replacement perfect tense, with no augment? I would have expected órië with a lengthened stem-vowel; orië looks more like a quite different form of the verb (a gerund, to be discussed in later lessons). This word may be worth noticing, all the same.

Before leaving the perfect tense, I should briefly comment on a somewhat strange form occurring in the Silmarillion, chapter 20. Here we have the exclamation utúlie'n aurë, translated "the day has come". Utúlie (utúlië) is clearly the perfect tense of tul- "come", as confirmed by the translation "has come". However, the added 'n is something of a mystery. What is this extra consonant doing there? The form utúlie'n is reminiscent of utúlien "I am come" in Elendil's Declaration in LotR, but here -n is a pronominal ending "I" (see the next section). No such ending can be present in utúlie'n, given Tolkien's translation. The apostrophe ' inserted before this latter n probably indicates a different pronunciation as well; in utúlie'n the final consonant is perhaps meant to be sounded as a separate syllable. It may be that this n is added simply for the sake of euphony, preventing three vowels in sequence (since the next word also begins in a vowel; if you count the diphthong au in aurë as two vowels, there would even be four sequential vowels). If a perfect tense appears with no secondary ending added to -ië, and the next word begins in a vowel, should we always insert 'n to avoid too many vowels in hiatus? I have used such a system in at least one composition of my own, but this conclusion is extremely tentative: In the exercises below I have never used this extra 'n, since no one really knows its function. Some even think it represents an alternative incarnation of the article (which normally appears as i): After all, Tolkien did employ the translation "the day has come". Hence utúlie'n aurë = ?utúlië en aurë or ?utúlië in aurë "has-come the day"??? (For a possible attestation of in as a Quenya article, see PM:395.) We can only hope that future publications will shed some more light on this. It may be noted that Christopher Gilson, who has access to unpublished Tolkien material, advocates the 'n = "the" interpretation.
Update, 2006: Since I originally published this course, an early "Qenya" grammar has been published in Parma Eldalamberon #14. On p. 71 this grammar dictates that the article "the" is to appear as n before words beginning in a vowel (and sometimes also when the previous word ends in a vowel). These rules clearly do not apply unreservedly to LotR-style Quenya (in Namárië we have i eleni, not n'eleni, for "the stars"). The sentence utúlie'n aurë may still reflect a later incarnation of this idea. If so, the 'n means "the" and has nothing to do with the perfect-tense form utúlie as such.

PRONOUNS
It is time to introduce one of really economic devices of Language, the pronouns. (If you know perfectly well what a pronoun is, and you also know about the three different "persons" that personal pronouns are divided into, please scroll down until you see the word Quenya in red. I'm not trying to waste anyone's time here!)
The word "pronoun" is a giveaway; it simply means "for (instead of) a noun". Pronouns are words (or endings) that can replace a noun, often referring back to a noun that has already been mentioned. Thus you don't have to repeat the noun itself all the time. Pronouns provide a kind of spoken shorthand, saving the language from utter tedium. Thanks to pronouns, speakers of English can keep up a conversation with another people without having to endlessly repeat the other party's name every time they are being addressed; instead the pronoun you is substituted. Instead of having to say "the group just referred to" or "the people presently being discussed" speakers of English have at their disposal the short, snappy word they. And try to imagine how you would go about referring to yourself without the pronoun I. Phrases like "this person" or "the one who is talking now" get tedious really fast.
	There are several kinds of pronouns (even interrogative ones like "who"), but the ones most frequently found are the personal pronouns, which we will focus on in this introduction. Customarily, they are divided into three different "persons" (not that the pronouns involved only refer to sentient beings; in this context, "person" is just an established term for a pronoun class). In English, this traditional tripartite classification produces a table something like this:

¤ FIRST PERSON (referring to oneself or one's own group): Singular I, as object me, of ownership my and mine; plural we, as object us, of ownership our and ours.
¤ SECOND PERSON (directly addressing another person or another group): Singular and plural both you, which is also the object form; of ownership your and yours. Archaic English also has distinct singular pronouns: Thou, as object thee, of ownership thy and thine.
¤ THIRD PERSON (referring to another person or group): Singular he, she, or it depending on the gender and/or nature of what is being referred to; as object him, her, or it (the latter being the same as the subject form), of ownership his, her (the latter happens to coincide with the object form, but there is also hers) and its. In the plural we have they, as object them, of ownership their and theirs. 

While the concept of these three "persons" as such is near-universal in the languages of the world, it is quite arbitrary what other distinctions languages build into their pronoun tables. The system is not necessarily symmetric, either – certainly not so in English. English pronouns normally maintain a distinction of singular vs. plural, e.g. singular I vs. plural we, but this distinction is suddenly abandoned in the second person, where you is used no matter whether the speaker addresses one person or several people. On the other hand, English suddenly becomes very pedantic in the third person singular. Here you have to use he if you are referring to a male, she if you are referring to a female (or a ship!), and it if you are referring to something inanimate or abstract, or to an animal (unless "it" is a pet and you feel you know "it" so intimately that you must consider saying "he" or "she" instead!)
Such hair-splitting distinctions are not made anywhere else in the English pronominal system, and certain other languages dispense with them. Finnish, ever relevant for this study since it was Tolkien's foremost inspiration for Quenya, only has a single word (hän) that covers both "he" and "she": The Finns get happily along without making this distinction. On the other hand, other languages may go even further than English. For instance, the Hebrews apparently thought the masculine/f²€ine distinction was so interesting that it wasn't enough to have separate words for "he" and "she". Hebrew also has separate words for "you" (atta when speaking to a man, att when addressing a woman). 
What, then, about Quenya? What pronominal distinctions did Tolkien have his Elves make?
It is somewhat difficult to say anything very definite about the Quenya pronominal system. Even now, with enormous amounts of material still unavailable to scholarship, it is already safe to say that the pronouns of Tolkien's Elvish languages were rather "unstable" – probably even more so than many other aspects of his ever-fluid linguistic constructs. The pronoun tables seem to have undergone countless revisions, and some think Tolkien never quite managed to sort out every detail. (Personally I think he did – the problem is rather that he did it so often!)
We know that the Quenya pronominal system, as Tolkien envisioned it in his later years, makes some distinctions that are not regularly expressed in English. For one thing, just as Quenya has a dual form of the noun in addition to the singular and plural forms, so there are also at least some dual pronouns. So in the First Person we don't find singular "I" and plural "we" only, but also a distinct dual pronoun meaning "you (sg.) and I" or "the two of us". Another subtle distinction is made in the words for "we": In Quenya, there are separate words or endings for "we", depending on whether or not the party that is addressed is included in "we" or not. On the other hand, it seems that Quenya does not always maintain the distinction between "he", "she" and even "it"; all of these may be covered by a single pronoun.
As this course proceeds, we will discuss various parts of the pronoun table and their associated obscurities, and also return to the special pronominal distinctions made in Quenya. However, let us introduce a few pronouns right away.
One thing should be understood: in Quenya, pronouns typically appear as endings, not so often as independent words. (Where a Quenya pronoun does appear as a separate word, it is often emphatic – producing much the same effect as putting an English pronoun in italics: "You [and no one else] did it." We will return to the independent pronouns later.) In the final lines of Namárië we find the word hiruvalyë, translated "thou shalt find" by Tolkien. If you have worked your way through all the exercises, you will remember the form hiruva, future tense of hir- "find". This hiruva "shall find" here appears with the pronominal ending -lyë attached, denoting the subject of the verb. This ending belongs to the Second Person and signifies "thou" – or using a less archaic translation, "you". Hence hiruvalyë = "thou shalt find", or "you will find". The suffix -lyë can be attached to any verb to indicate that its subject is "you, thou".
Having mentioned this pronoun we however run into Instant Obscurity, which is a situation we shall often find ourselves in while discussing Quenya pronouns. It is unclear whether or not this ending -lyë covers both singular and plural "you"; in Namárië it is singular, as demonstrated by the translation "thou". In one of Tolkien's draft texts for the LotR Appendices, he actually wrote that the Elvish languages did not distinguish between singular and plural "you" (no more than English does): "All these languages...had, or originally had, no distinction between the singular and plural of the second person pronouns; but they had a marked distinction between the familiar forms and the courteous" (PM:42-43). The ending -lyë, used by Galadriel to address a relative stranger like Frodo, would seem to be a polite or courteous "you". In Namárië it is thus used as a singular "thou", only one person being addressed, but according to PM:42-43 just quoted it could equally well be plural "you" (so if all the members of the Fellowship had understood Quenya, they still couldn't be certain whether Galadriel was addressing them all, or Frodo alone).
However, in the essay Quendi and Eldar written about half a decade after the publication of LotR, Tolkien did imply the existence of pronominal endings that make a distinction between singular and plural "you" (WJ:364). Here he referred to "reduced pronominal affixes of the 2nd person", implied to be -t in the singular and -l in the plural. This -l could well be a "reduced" form of -lyë, which would then be a plural "you". Even so, Tolkien indisputably used this ending for a singular "you" in Namárië, since he translated it as "thou" in the text in LotR. This shorter ending -l is also attested as part of the verb hamil "you judge" (VT42:33), and this may also be taken as a singular "you", though the context is not conclusive either way. It would seem that in the second half of the fifties, Tolkien had been rethinking the pronominal system. The statement made in the draft text for the LotR Appendices, to the effect that Elvish did not distinguish singular and plural "you", had not actually made it into the published LotR. Therefore he would not be bound by it. (Whenever we are dealing with Tolkien material that has been published only posthumously, we can never be certain that the information provided is entirely "canonical": The author could always change his mind, and so he often did, especially regarding the languages.) 
In yet another late source, Tolkien listed the primitive Elvish roots for the pronoun "you" as LE in the singular and DE in the plural (VT48:24). The Quenya ending -lyë could be related to LE, and hence singular. Confusingly, an archaic ending -dye (with the D of DE) would also have become -lyë in Quenya. Therefore we could imagine that an original distinction between singular and plural "you" would be lost because of phonological changes. But many of the plural pronominal endings in Quenya seem to insert an l before the pronominal "root" itself. We will later discuss the ending -lmë for "we"; this is l + the pronominal root ME "we". I would not be surprised if Tolkien at one stage used -ldë as the ending for plural "you" (l + root DE), again leaving -lyë distinctly singular: "thou" rather than plural "you".
At one point, Tolkien also seems to have used the ending -llë for plural "you", corresponding to singular -lyë (cf. VT43:36). I am not convinced that this system endured. When DE emerged as the root for plural "you", he may have decided to go for -ldë instead of -llë, but this still cannot be proved.
Also, next to the root LE for "you", there is the root KE of similar meaning. The difference seems to be that KE is intimate and familiar, whereas LE is polite or formal. The Quenya ending -lyë related to LE is probably also a polite form, not the kind of "you" one would use when addressing a close friend in an informal context. As for the informal "you", the relevant ending has been theorized to be -tyë, related to the root KE (in the primitive language the ending would be -kye, but ky became ty in Quenya).
However, at this moment only the ending -lyë and its shorter variant -l are attested in published material. We will use this ending for "you" in the exercises below, though it should be noted that this is probably a courteous singular "you".

We seem to have plunged right into the Second Person; let us return to the First. In the First Person singular, things are luckily crystal clear (well, very nearly so). The pronoun "I" is most often represented by the ending -n. (Linguists have noted that in the languages of the world, the term for "I, me" remarkably often includes some nasal sound like N or M. Whatever subtle features of human psychology underlie this phenomenon, Tolkien seems to have liked this association, and worked it into several of his languages. Cf. Sindarin im = "I".) Notice how the ending -n is added to the verbs utúlië (perfect tense of tul- "come") and maruva (future tense of mar- "abide, dwell") in Elendil's Declaration:

Et Eärello Endorenna utúlien = "out of the Great Sea to Middle-earth I am come."
Sinomë maruvan = "in this place will I abide".

However, the ending -n for "I" also occurs as a longer variant, -nyë. (As noted above, the ending -lyë for "you" has a shorter variant -l; the variation -nyë vs. -n for "I" would parallel this.) This longer variant is seen in a word we have already touched on in this lesson, the form utúvienyes! "I have found it!" – Aragorn's exclamation when he found the discovered the sapling of the White Tree. The word utúvië, apparently the perfect tense of a verb tuv- "find", here occurs with two pronominal endings. The first of them, -nyë or "I", denotes the subject of the verb: Utúvie+nyë "have found+I" = "I have found". However, following -nyë we have yet another pronominal ending, the Third Person Singular suffix -s, meaning "it". Thus an entire sentence of verb, subject and object has been telescoped into a single word: utúvienyes = "I have found it". 

NOTE: Notice that according to the spelling conventions here employed, final -ë loses its diaeresis whenever an ending is added so that it is not final anymore: utúvië + -nyë = utúvienyë and not utúviënyë; adding -s to utúvienyë likewise produces utúvienyes and not utúvienyës. This is solely a matter of orthography.

 We can abstract this grammatical rule: if a verb is to receive two pronominal endings, one denoting the subject of the verb and the second the object, the subject ending is attached first and the object ending next. In published material, there are three or four more examples of this, beside utúvienyes.
It is then obvious why the long form -nye- is preferred here. While utúvien would do nicely for "I have found", the object ending -s "it" could not have been added to the short ending -n, since **utúviens is not a possible Quenya word. So we can formulate another rule: The long form -nyë (-nye-), NOT short -n, must be used for "I" if another pronominal ending is to follow it. (Similarly, for "you" one must use the long ending -lyë [-lye-], not the shorter form -l, if a second pronominal ending is to be added: "You have found" could be either utúviel or utúvielyë, but "you have found it" must be utúvielyes, since **utúviels would be impossible.)
The long ending -nyë "I" may however occur even if there is no object pronoun following it (as can the long form -lyë for "you, thou", cf. hiruvalyë "thou shalt find" in Namárië). The form linduvanyë "I shall sing" occurs on the frontispiece of the 1975 French bilingual edition of The Adventures of Tom Bombadil (ISBN 2-264-00913-6). The frontispiece reproduces a manuscript page by Tolkien, including some brief linguistic notes. (Taum Santoski, analyzing these notes in the newsletter Beyond Bree, October 1985, read this form as "linduvanya" – but as pointed out by Carl F. Hostetter, Tolkien probably intended "linduvanye" instead. Tolkien was capable of wonderful calligraphy, but his normal handwriting is often a challenge to transcribers!) As long as no second pronominal ending is to follow, it is apparently wholly optional whether one uses the long ending -nyë or the short ending -n for "I". We have the long ending in linduvanyë "I shall sing", but Elendil's Declaration uses the short ending in maruvan "I will abide". Certainly these examples could be scrambled to produce linduvan, maruvanyë of exactly the same meaning.
It seems, however, that the short ending -n is much more common than the longer suffix -nyë. We have already encountered this -n attached to several verbs, such as polin "I can", tirin "I watch" in the previous lesson. Tolkien very often cites primary verbs like this, listing them as they appear in the 1st person aorist (with the ending -i- intact because it is followed by an ending and hence not final, so that it would become -ë). Tirin is an example actually found in the Etymologies (entry TIR), but by the standards of this field, examples truly abound: carin "I make, build" (entry KAR), lirin "I sing" (GLIR) or "I chant" (LIR1), nutin "I tie" (NUT), nyarin "I tell" (NAR2), rerin "I sow" (RED), serin "I rest" (SED), sucin "I drink" (SUK), tamin "I tap" (TAM), tucin "I draw" (TUK), tulin "I come" (TUL), turin "I wield" (TUR), tyavin "I taste" (KYAP), vilin "I fly" (WIL), umin "I do not" (UGU/UMU). The form polin "I can" (VT41:6) is one of several examples from post-LotR sources. Presumably it would in no way be wrong to use the long ending -nyë instead (e.g. polinyë), but -n is the commonest ending in the published corpus. But especially for the purpose of poetry, it is often practical to be able to choose between a long and a short pronominal ending, so that one can include or get rid of a syllable if the meter demands this.
Also notice that the ending -nyë, as well as -lyë for "you", cause the accent to fall on the syllable preceding the ending because ny and ly here count as consonant clusters. Cf. the stress rules set out in Lesson One. If hiruvanyë "I will find" (with the accent on a) doesn't sound good in your poem, you can always use the short form hiruvan and have the accent land on i in the first syllable instead. (Again, we may have the same system in the Second Person: It is entirely possible that in Namárië, Tolkien wrote hiruvalyë rather than the shorter form hiruval simply because the former variant fit his poetic meter better.)
As for the ending -s meaning "it", occurring as an object pronoun in utúvienyes "I have found it", it seems that it may also be used as a subject. For instance, if polin is "I can", we must assume that "it can" would be polis. However, the ending -s brings us into the Third Person with its own set of obscurities, which we will save for later (Lesson 15). In the exercises below, -s is used in the same way as in the example utúvienyes: attached to another pronominal ending to denote the object of the verb (just as the first ending added to the verb denotes its subject).

Summary of Lesson Eight: The Quenya perfect tense is formed by adding the ending -ië to the verbal stem (if the stem ends in a vowel, it is apparently omitted before -ië is added; verbs in -ya seem to lose this entire ending). Unless followed by a consonant cluster, the stem-vowel is lengthened. Normally it is also reduplicated as an augment prefixed to the verb (ric- "twist" vs. irícië "has twisted", hanya- "understand" vs. ahánië "has understood"). However, there also appear some unaugmented perfects in the published corpus (notably fírië rather than ifírië for "has expired"), so it may be permissible to leave out the augment and still have a valid perfect tense form. It is somewhat unclear how the augment is to be prefixed to verbal stems beginning in a vowel. – Quenya pronouns most typically appear as endings rather than separate words. Among these pronominal endings we have -n or -nyë "I", -l or -lyë "thou, you" and -s "it". Two pronominal endings may be added to the same verb, the first of them denoting the subject of the verb, the second its object.

VOCABULARY
otso "seven"
seldo "boy" (actually Tolkien didn't provide an explicit gloss, but the word is cited in a context where he is discussing Quenya words for "child", and seldo seems to be a masculine form. See the entry SEL-D- in the Etymologies.)
mól "thrall, slave"
an "for" (or "since, because", introducing a sentence giving a reason, as in "I rely on him, for he has often been of help to me".)
tul- verb "come"
lanta- verb "fall"
nurta- verb "hide" (cf. the Nurtalë Valinóreva or "Hiding of Valinor" referred to in the Silmarillion)
lerya- verb "release, (set) free, let go"
metya- verb "end" = "put an end to"
roita- verb "pursue"
laita- verb "bless, praise"
imbi preposition "between"

NOTE ON IMBI "BETWEEN": In Namárië, this word appears as imbë in the phrase imbë met "between us". I therefore used the form imbë in the first version of this course. However, according to VT47:11, 30, the form imbë is used before dual nouns and pronouns, like imbë siryat "between a couple of rivers" and Namarië's imbë met "between us two" (notice the dual ending -t in siryat, met). Otherwise, the form to use is imbi. 

EXERCISES 

1. Translate into English (and practice your vocabulary; except for the numeral otso and the pronominal endings, exercises A-H only employ words you are supposed to have memorized in earlier lessons):

A. I nér ihírië i harma.
B. I rávi amátier i hrávë.
C. I aran utultië i tári.
D. I nissi ecendier i parma.
E. I úmëa tári amápië i Naucor otso.
F. Etécielyë parmar otso.
G. Equétien.
H. Ecénielyes. 

2. Translate into Quenya:

I. The man has come.
J. The seven Dwarves have eaten.
K. The boys have seen a lion between the trees. 
L. The six Elves have pursued the seven Dwarves.
M. The Dwarf has hidden a treasure.
N. I have praised the king, for the king has released all thralls.
O. You have fallen, and I have seen it.
P. I have put an end to it [/I have ended it].

LESSON NINE
The infinitive. The negative verb. Active participles.

THE INFINITIVE
All of the forms of the verb that we have discussed so far, all the tenses, are what a linguist would call finite verb forms. The definition of a finite verb is that it is capable of functioning as the predicate of a sentence, the part of the sentence that tells us what the subject does (or is – in Lesson Four we pointed out that a phrase made up of copula + noun or adjective also counts as a predicate, e.g. "gold is beautiful", but here we will deal with more normal verbs instead). In a sentence like i Elda máta massa "the Elf is eating bread", linguists can readily label the roles of all parts of the sentence: just like i Elda "the Elf" is the subject and massa "bread" is the object, so the verb máta "is eating" is the predicate of the sentence. And precisely because the form máta (present tense of mat- "eat") is able to function as a predicate here, we can tell that máta is a finite form of the verb.
	The infinitive is another story. It is, as the name suggests, in-finite – non-finite. It is not inflected for time, as are the tenses. It does not receive the ending -r, even if the subject of the sentence is plural. So by itself, an infinitive is not capable of functioning as the predicate of a sentence. An infinitive cannot be directly teamed up with a subject. What, then, is its use?
	English infinitives have various uses, but an important function of the infinitive is that it allows several verbs to be combined in one sentence. In a sentence like "the Dwarves wanted to eat", the verb "wanted" is a finite form, appearing in one specific tense (in this case past tense). But the verb "eat" appears as an infinitive, "to eat", complementing the finite verb to form a longer verbal phrase "wanted to eat". In English, infinitive verbs are very often marked by inserting "to" before the verb proper, but this "to" is not always included. In a sentence like "I let him go", the verb "go" counts as an infinitive even though there is no "to" before it. (Contrast "I allowed him to go".) Neither is "to" included before an infinitive following certain verbs like "can" or "must" (e.g. "I must go", not **"I must to go").
	In Quenya, there seems to be no independent infinitive marker like English "to", so we don't have to worry about where to include or omit it. Attested examples of Quenya infinitives most certainly do not abound, but there is the sentence polin quetë "I can speak" (VT41:6). Here the verb polin "I can" is a finite form, the aorist of the primary verb pol- appearing with the pronominal ending -n "I" attached – but the word quetë must be analyzed as an infinitive. Of course, quetë is similar in form to an aorist "speaks", but as indicated by the translation "speak" as well as the context, the form quetë is infinitival here. We can tell, then, that primary verbs like quet- have infinitives in -ë (undoubtedly representing Primitive Elvish -i). The ending may be analyzed simply as a kind of stopgap that is supplied to make up for the absence of any other ending, or quetë may be seen as representing an uninflected primitive "I-stem" kweti. No matter how we imagine the ultimate derivation and the "meaning" of the ending -ë, we probably know enough to actually start using the infinitive form of primary verbs. Here are some (home-made) examples combining infinitives with various finite forms (tenses) of the verbs mer- "wish, want" and pol- "can". Finite verbs in red, infinitives in blue:

I Elda polë cenë i Nauco "the Elf can see the Dwarf" (notice that though the verbs pol- "can" and cen- "see, behold" receive the same ending -ë here, the former is an aorist and the latter is an infinitive: The context must decide whether the form cenë is to be understood as an aorist "sees" or an infinitive "[to] see")
I Naucor merner matë "the Dwarves wanted to eat" (finite verb merner "wanted", inflected for past tense and plural, + infinitive verb matë "to eat")
I seldo pollë hlarë ilya quetta "the boy could hear every word"
Polilyë carë ilqua "you can do everything"
I nissi meruvar tulë "the women will want to come"

What, then, about A-stems? In the Etymologies, Tolkien often glossed A-stem verbs as if they were infinitives, e.g. anta- "to present, give", varya- "to protect" or yelta- "to loathe" (entries ANA1, BAR, DYEL). This is not by itself conclusive evidence that a form like anta could actually be used as an infinitive "to give" in a Quenya text, for in the tradition of Western linguistics, the infinitive is commonly the form used to name, list or gloss a verb in wordlists. For the purpose of dictionaries, the most basic form of the verb in a foreign tongue may be translated as an infinitive even though the foreign-language word is really another form of the verb. However, a form like anta- is simply an uninflected A-stem, and Tolkien did refer to certain grammatical circumstances "when the bare stem of the verb is used...as infinitive" (MC:223). The general system also seems to suggest that A-stems with no additions can function as infinitives. (Notice that the infinitives of both primary verbs and A-stems seem to be similar in form to ending-less aorists.) So I guess we can have sentences like the following (and let me just underline the infinitives to avoid too much fancy coloring):

I vendi merner linda "the maidens wanted to sing"
I norsa polë orta i alta ondo "the giant can lift the big rock"
Merin cenda i parma "I want to read the book"

In some cases, English may prefer a form in -ing to a regular infinitive, for instance after the verbs "start" and "stop". I think it is a fair guess that Quenya would use the normal infinitive in such cases as well:

I nissi pustaner linda "the women stopped singing" (or, "...ceased to sing")

Several infinitives can probably be juxtaposed by means of ar "and":

	I neri merir cenda ar tecë rimbë parmar "the men want to read and 
(to) write many books"

The discussion above certainly does not cover all there is to say about Quenya infinitives. Some more details are known and will be filled in later in this course, but there are many obscure points. In some very late (ca. 1969) notes, Tolkien refers to "the general (aorist) 'infinitive' formed by added -i" (VT41:17), but since only brief quotes from this material have been published, we cannot be certain what he means. Is there a specific "aorist infinitive"? We have earlier discussed the distinction made between such forms as máta "is eating" (present/continuative tense) and matë "eats" (aorist). Does Quenya carry these distinctions over into the infinitive, so that one can somehow distinguish "to eat" (aorist infinitive) from "to be eating" (continuative infinitive)?
Moreover, what does Tolkien refer to by "added -i"? Obviously there is an infinitive that is formed by adding -i to the verbal stem (of primary verbs at least). But is this ending a contemporary Quenya suffix, or does it represent a Primitive Elvish form? As mentioned above, the attested infinitive quetë "(to) say" may be meant to represent a primitive form kweti, which would indeed be the root kwet- with "added -i". But if this -i is a contemporary Quenya suffix, there would be an alternative infinitive queti "to say". How it is used, and whether it is interchangeable with the attested form quetë, we cannot even begin to guess. In the essay Quendi and Eldar, Tolkien did mention a few verb forms that may seem to exemplify an infinitive in -i, namely auciri and hóciri, both meaning "cut off" (in two different senses, see WJ:365-366). But later in the essay, he quoted the same forms with a hyphen attached (auciri-, hóciri-), as if these are verbal stems rather than independent infinitive forms (WJ:368). So we cannot be sure of anything, and must await the publication of more material.

As noted above, the infinitive is traditionally used to name or list verbs, or to give their meaning as a general gloss. From now on we will often define verbs in such a way, e.g. glossing a verbal stem like tul- as "to come" and lanta- as "to fall" (rather than simply "come", "fall"). It must still be understood that the mere stem of primary verb like tul- cannot function as an actual infinitive ("tul") in a Quenya text (it must be tulë instead). It is simply customary and convenient to give the meaning of a verb by quoting its gloss in the infinitive. In the Vocabulary listings of Lessons 5 through 8, I had to write "verb" in front of the gloss of every new verb to make it crystal clear what part of speech the new word belonged to. Sometimes this was actually necessary: If I defined lanta- simply as "fall", some student would surely manage to overlook the final hyphen of lanta- that is meant to suggest that this is a verbal stem, and conclude that "fall" is here a noun – autumn, or something! Finally having introduced the infinitive, I will use this form instead when glossing verbs – like "to fall" in this case.

NOTE: In English, infinitives introduced by "to" (or "in order to") are often used to describe an intention: "I came to see you." In such a context, it seems that Quenya does not use the forms discussed so far, but a quite different construction (gerund in dative, to be discussed in a later lesson). 

THE NEGATIVE VERB
This may be a good place to introduce a somewhat peculiar Quenya verb. Earlier we have mentioned the copula ná "is", which we can now refer to as a tense of the verb "to be". (Don't ask me if ná is the present tense or the aorist, and the other tenses of this verb are unfortunately even more obscure, except for the future tense nauva "will be". We will return to this verb in Lesson 20. The verb "to be" is notoriously irregular in the languages of the world, and Tolkien may well have invented some nice irregularities for Quenya as well.)
Anyhow, Quenya also has a unitary verb meaning "not to be"; you can express this meaning without combining some form of ná with a separate word for "not" (though Quenya does have such a negation as well). This verb is listed in the Etymologies, entry UGU/UMU, where it appears as umin "I am not" (another example of Tolkien's frequent habit of listing primary verbs in the 1st person aorist). The past tense is also listed, somewhat special: it is úmë, not **umnë as it would have to be according to the simplest "regular" pattern. Úmë as the past tense of a primary verb um- would seem to belong to the same pattern as lávë, pa.t. of lav- "to lick" (cf. undulávë "down-licked" = "covered" in Namárië in LotR). One must take care not to confuse the past tense form úmë "was not" with the ending-less aorist umë "is not".
As the future tense of this verb, we might expect umuva, and this unattested form may well be permissible – but actually a shorter form úva occurs in Fíriel's Song. Here we have the phrase úva...farëa, "will not be enough" (farëa = adjective "enough, sufficient"). Possibly, this úva is actually the future tense of another verb: Besides umin "I am not" from the root UMU Tolkien also listed a form uin of the same meaning – apparently derived from the root UGU. Perhaps úva is strictly the future tense of the latter verb. It could represent a primitive form something like uguba, whereas uin is to be derived from ugin (or ugi-ni at an even older stage). Between vowels, g was lost in Quenya, so that the two u's of uguba merged into one long ú in úva, whereas the u and the i of ugin merged into a diphthong ui (as in uin) when the disappearance of g brought the two vowels into direct contact. Whatever development Tolkien may have imagined, we will here use úva as the future tense of um- "not to be", avoiding the unattested (and perhaps somewhat awkward) form umuva.

Like ná, this "negative copula" can presumably be used to connect a subject with a noun or an adjective:

	I Nauco umë aran "the Dwarf is not a king"
	I nissi umir tiucë "the women are not fat"
I rocco úmë morë "the horse was not black"
I neri úmer sailë "the men were not wise"
Elda úva úmëa "an Elf will not be evil" 
Nissi úvar ohtari "women will not be warriors" (sorry, Éowyn!)

Or, using pronominal endings instead of an independent subject:

Umin Elda "I am not an Elf"
Úmen saila "I was not wise"
Úvalyë ohtar "you will not be a warrior"

But above I said that this was a good place to introduce the negative verb. This is because it can probably be combined with infinitives as well. We lack actual examples, but in the entry UGU/UMU in Etym, Tolkien indicated that umin does not always signify "I am not". It can just as well mean "I do not". By combining such a verb with an infinitive, one can probably negate the verbs in question. Home-made examples involving various tenses of the negative verb:

	Umin turë macil "I do not wield a sword"
	Máma umë matë hrávë "a sheep does not eat flesh"
	I Nauco úmë tulë "the Dwarf did not come"
	I neri úmer hirë i harma "the men did not find the treasure"
	I nís úva linda "the woman will not sing"
	I neri úvar cenë i Elda "the men will not see the Elf"

We must assume that following the negative verb, as well as in other contexts, several infinitives may sometimes be combined, like merë and cenë in this sentence (the finite verb in red, the two infinitives in blue and pink):

	I Elda úmë merë cenë i Nauco. "The Elf did not want to see the Dwarf."

Or again, with the infinitives merë and cenda:

	I Nauco úva merë cenda i parma. "The Dwarf will not want to read the book."

Presumably the present/continuous tense of the negative verb, which would have to be úma, can be used to deny the existence of an ongoing action:

I Nauco úma linda "the Dwarf is not singing" (just now)

Contrast the aorist: I Nauco umë linda "the Dwarf does not sing". The latter would often (but not necessarily) have a wider application, like "the Dwarf is not a singer". Anyhow, we will stick to the aorist in the exercises below.

ACTIVE PARTICIPLES
The various parts of speech, such as nouns, verbs, and adjectives, remain relatively distinct categories most of the time. However, some words fuse the properties of several parts of speech. The participles are words with a basically adjectival function, but they are directly derived from verbs, and in the case of active participles, they are still able to take an object.
The participles are subdivided into two categories, often called present participles and past participles. These terms are somewhat misleading, for the most important distinction between them has nothing to do with tenses. The alternative terms active participles and passive participles are better, and I will try to use them consistently here.
We will save the "past" or passive participle for the next lesson and focus on the "present" or active participles here. In English, this form is derived by means of the ending -ing. For instance, the verb "follow" has the active participle "following". This verbal adjective describes the state of something or someone that carries out the action of the corresponding verb: The day that follows can be described as the following day.
If the verb is able to take an object, so is its corresponding participle. A person who loves Elves can be described as a person loving Elves.
In English, the form derived from verbs by adding -ing is somewhat ambiguous. It can also function as a noun. The active participle of a verb like "kill" is of course killing, as it is clearly adjectival in a phrase like "a killing experience", but in a sentence like "the killing must stop", it is equally clear that it is used as a noun. But in the latter sentence, "killing" is a verbal noun, an abstract noun denoting the action of killing. Here we are only interested in verbal adjectives = participles. In Quenya, the two do not coincide in form.
The Quenya ending corresponding to English -ing (when used to form participles) is -la. There are many examples of active participles in the Markirya poem. For instance, Tolkien in his annotation indicated that "ilkala [is the] participle of ilka 'gleam (white)' " (MC:223). The participle ilcala (as we would spell it here) thus means "gleaming", and so it is used in the poem, in a phrase translated "in the moon gleaming" (MC:215).
It seems that in a Quenya active participle, the stem-vowel is lengthened if possible. In ilcala the i cannot become long í because there is a consonant cluster following it. However, Tolkien in MC:223 also mentioned a verb hlapu- "to fly or stream in the wind" (one of the rare U-stems, a rather obscure category of verbs). Its participle appears as hlápula on the previous page: Winga hlápula, translated "foam blowing" (cf. MC:214). We must assume, then, that the participle of a verb like lala- "to laugh" is lálala (!) "laughing": The stem-vowel is lengthened. If the verbal stem includes a vowel that is long already, it simply stays long in the participle: The participles of píca- "to lessen, dwindle" and rúma- "to shift, move, heave" appear as pícala and rúmala in the Markirya poem. 
In the case of longer verbal stems where the stem-vowel occurs twice, as in falasta- "to foam" (root evidently PHALAS), it seems that it is the second occurrence of the stem-vowel that is to be lengthened if possible. In this case it cannot be lengthened, since it is followed by a consonant cluster; the participle "foaming" is attested (in Markirya) as falastala. The first occurrence of the stem-vowel could have been lengthened as far as phonology is concerned (**fálastala), but this first vowel evidently does not "count" for the purpose of lengthening.
	The primary verbs are a problem. Adding the ending -la to their stems would usually result in consonant clusters not permitted in Quenya. For instance, the participle of the verb tir- "to watch" cannot be **tirla (let alone **tírla), a quite impossible Quenya word. It has been assumed that in such cases, one may start by constructing the "continuative stem" (similar to the present tense) by lengthening the stem-vowel and adding -a, e.g. tíra "is watching", and then derive the participle by adding the participial ending -la to this form: tírala "watching". Markirya has hácala as a participle "yawning"; unfortunately the underlying verb "to yawn" is not attested, but if it is a primary verb hac-, the attested participial form would confirm such a theory. But of course, the verb underlying the participle hácala could just as well be an A-stem haca- or háca- (cf. hlápula "blowing, streaming" from hlapu- and pícala "dwindling, waning" from píca-).
	With the publication of The Peoples of Middle-earth in 1996, a form that may seem to be the participle of a primary verb became available: PM:363 refers to the root "it [as in] itila 'twinkling, glinting', and íta 'a flash', ita- verb 'to sparkle'." But is itila really the participle of a primary verb it-? Tolkien refers to it- as a "stem" or root (cf. PM:346), not as a Quenya verb. The actual Quenya verb in question is listed as ita-, a short A-stem meaning "to sparkle". Its participle would presumably be ítala, not itila. If the latter is a participle at all, it is a peculiar one: it shows no lengthening of the stem-vowel (not **ítila), and a connecting vowel -i- is inserted before the ending -la. Since the aorist of a verb it- would be iti- (becoming itë only in the absence of any endings), one may wonder if itila is an aorist participle. This would mean that Quenya is able to carry the distinction of aorist/present tense over into the participle, so that there are different forms for "doing" (habitually or momentarily) and "doing" (continuously): perhaps something like carila and cárala, respectively (from the verb car- "to do"). But this is speculative, and I cannot recommend such a system to writers; we must await the publication of more material. It may be that itila is simply an old adjectival formation that no longer "counts" as an adjective in Quenya. The ending -la occurs in adjectives as well, e.g. saila "wise": Undoubtedly -la is in origin simply an adjectival ending that came to be favoured as the suffix used to derive verbal adjectives = participles.
	Even so, Quenya participles seem to have established themselves as formations quite distinct from adjectives, for in one respect their behaviour differs: Unlike adjectives, the active participles apparently do not agree in number. For instance, Markirya has rámar sisílala for "wings shining" (the second word being the participle of the verb sisíla-, a longer variant of the verb sil- "shine white"). As we remember, normal adjectives in -a have plural forms in -ë (representing archaic Quenya -ai). So if sisílala were to agree in number with the noun it describes, we would have expected **rámar sisílalë. Perhaps Tolkien did not want participles in -la to agree in number precisely because the plural form of the participial ending would have to be -lë: This ending could easily be confused with the prominent abstract ending -lë, which is added to verbal stems to derive verbal nouns – e.g. lindalë "singing" from linda- "to sing" (as in Ainulindalë "Ainu-singing", free rendering "Music of the Ainur"). While lindala and lindalë both translate as "singing" in English, the latter is a noun ("a singing"), whereas the former is "singing" in the adjectival sense.

English very often employs the active participle to express the meaning of a continuative tense, combining the participle with a copula like "is" or "was", e.g. "the boy is laughing".  None can say whether the English-style wording i seldo ná lálala is a valid Quenya sentence; one suspects that while it would be intelligible, the Eldar (/Tolkien) would not think of it as "good Quenya". Presumably Quenya would rather use the "present" or continuative form of the verb itself, which must often be translated as an "is ...-ing" construction in English. 
	While we have no attested example of an active participle taking an object, we must assume that it is possible, e.g. Nauco tírala Elda, "a Dwarf watching an Elf". 

Summary of Lesson Nine: The infinitive is a form of the verb that is not inflected for tense and is therefore unable to function as the predicate of a sentence (as a finite verb can); an infinitive may be combined with other verbs to form longer verbal phrases. While there are some obscurities, the (or one) Quenya infinitive is apparently identical to the verbal stem itself, except that primary verbs receive the ending -ë – e.g. quet- "to speak" in the sentence polin quetë "I can speak". This infinitive would seem to be the one used when infinite and finite verbs are combined (as in the example just quoted, where the infinitive quetë is combined with a finite form of the verb pol- "can"). – The negative verb um- (past tense úmë, future úva) can apparently function both as a negative copula ("not be") and as a verb that may be combined with the infinitive of other verbs to express "not do..." something, e.g. umin quetë "I do not speak".  – The active participle, a verbal adjective describing the state of the one carrying out the action denoted by the corresponding verb, is derived by adding -la to the corresponding verbal stem. The stem-vowel is lengthened if there is no consonant cluster following it. It is somewhat unclear how the ending -la is to be added to the stems of primary verbs, but one plausible assumption may be that the ending is suffixed to the "continuous" form (with lengthened stem-vowel and ending -a, e.g. tíra from tir- "to watch", hence tírala as the participle "watching"). 

VOCABULARY
tolto "eight" (we use this form here, but the alternative form toldo that turns up in some Tolkien manuscripts may be considered equally valid) 
pol- "to be (physically) able to", normally translated "can" (where this refers to some physical ability – not "can" in the sense "know how to", referring to intellectual skill, or "can" in the sense "may" = "is permitted to", referring to freedom from prohibitions. For the two latter meanings, Quenya uses distinct words.) 
um- negative verb "not to do" or "not to be", past tense úmë, future tense úva
mer- "to wish, want"
hlar- "to hear" (related to Sindarin lhaw as in Amon Lhaw, the Hill of Hearing mentioned in LotR)
verya- "to dare" (from the same root as the Sindarin name Beren, meaning bold or daring one)
lelya- "to go, proceed, travel", past tense lendë, perfect [e]lendië (more about this "irregular" verb in the next lesson)
pusta- "to stop"
ruhta- "to terrify, to scare" (ultimately related to Urco or Orco, the Quenya words for "bogey, Orc")
coa "house" (building only, not "house" = "family")
mir preposition "into"
ter preposition "through" (a longer variant terë also exists, but I have used ter in the exercises below)

EXERCISES

Translate into English:

A. Sílala Isil ortanë or Ambar.
B. I cápala Nauco lantanë ter i talan.
C. Polin hlarë lindala vendë.
D. Minë nér túrala minë macil úva ruhta i tolto taurë ohtari.
E. Mól mápala taura nér umë saila. 
F. I tolto rávi caitala nu i aldar ortaner, an i rávi merner matë i neri.
G. Rá umë polë pusta matë hrávë.
H. I ruhtala ohtar pustanë tirë i lië, an i ohtar úmë saila.

Translate into Quenya:

I. The man pursuing the Dwarf is a warrior.
J. The king wanted to go.
K. The maiden did not dare to see the queen.
L. The laughing women went into the house.
M. The eight traveling Dwarves can find many treasures.
N. You did not praise the Elf, you do not praise the Man [Atan], and you will not praise the Dwarf.
O. I want to travel through the world and free all peoples.
P. A daring man went through the gate and into the mountain.

LESSON TEN 
Adverbs. The pronominal endings -ltë and -t. Infinitives with object pronouns. The past tense of intransitive verbs in -ya. Passive participles.

ADVERBS
Adverbs form a part of speech that is used to provide "extra information" in a sentence. A typical sentence provides information about who does what (to whom), involving a subject, a predicate and if necessary an object. But you may also want to slip in information about when, where or in what manner the verbal action occurs. This is where adverbs enter the linguistic stage.
	In many cases, adverbs are to verbs what adjectives are to nouns. Like an adjective may describe a noun, an adverb may describe the nature of the verbal action of the sentence. In a sentence like "they left swiftly", the last word is an adverb describing how or in what manner "they left". If we say "she is singing now", the word "now" is an adverb answering the question of when the verbal action is taking place. And if we say "they did it here", the word "here" is an adverb telling us where the verbal action took place.
	Some adverbs may be called "basic", since they are not derived from another part of speech. Just consider such an adverb of time as English "now" and its Quenya equivalent sí; neither can be further analyzed. But very many English adverbs are not "basic" in this way. They are transparently derived from adjectives, as in one of the examples we just used: The adverb "swiftly" is obviously based on the adjective "swift". The Great English Adverb-Former is the ending -ly, which can in principle be added to any adjective, turning it into an adverb (producing such pairs as deep/deeply, final/finally, great/greatly, high/highly, swift/swiftly and countless others...but preferably not "good/goodly", since the place of "goodly" is already occupied by the basic adverb well!) Since we have only a handful of words that Tolkien explicitly identified as adverbs, but plenty of adjectives, it would be nice if we could pin down a Quenya adverb-former like the English ending -ly. Then we could derive our own Quenya adverbs.
We may have such a Quenya ending. It occurs in LotR, as part of the Cormallen Praise (volume 3, Book Six, chapter IV: "The Field of Cormallen"). As part of the praise received by the Ringbearers we have the two words andavë laituvalmet, translated "long we will praise them" in Letters:308. Here we have the adverb andavë, "long" (here meaning "for a long time"). We know that the Quenya adjective "long" is anda (cf. Sindarin and as in And+duin = Anduin, "Long River"). It would seem, then, that this adjective has been turned into an adverb by supplying the ending -vë (probably related to the Quenya preposition ve "as, like"). In the case of anda/andavë, the English translation is "long" in either case, but normally the ending -vë would correspond to English "-ly". So if alta is "great", can we use altavë for "greatly"? Since tulca is a word for "firm", would "firmly" be tulcavë? Knowing that saila means "wise", can we assume that sailavë is an acceptable word for "wisely"? By and large, I think such formations are plausible, though the potential application of the ending -vë may not be literally limitless. The Quenya adjective "good" is mára; one wonders if máravë for "well" would sound just as weird as "goodly" in English! (After I first wrote this course, an adverb mai "well" has turned up in a late text published in VT47:6, and this must be our first option to express this meaning now: No need for the highly questionable form máravë!) 
Like anda "long", the vast majority of Quenya adjectives end in -a. The less frequent adjectives in -ë in practically all cases descend from Primitive Elvish forms in -i, which vowel would be preserved unchanged before an ending or in compounds: Compare morë "dark, black" with the compound Moriquendi "Dark Elves". We must assume that the original quality of the vowel would also be preferred before the adverbial ending -vë – so if we try to derive an adverb "darkly" from morë, it should probably be morivë rather than morevë. Actually, very few of the adjectives in -ë are likely to have any corresponding adverbs; they mostly denote colours. Perhaps we can have mussë/mussivë "soft/softly", nindë/nindivë "thin/thinly" and ringë/ringivë "cold/coldly" (but in a later source, the word for "cold" appears as ringa rather than ringë, and then the adverb would simply be ringavë).
How the ending -vë would be added to the few adjectives in -n is quite unclear. The adjective melin "dear" (not to be confused with the similar-sounding 1st person aorist "I love") could have a corresponding adjective melinvë "dearly", for while nv does not occur in unitary words, it is a possible Quenya combination (cf. Aragorn's title Envinyatar "Renewer", where en- = "re-"). On the other hand, if the ending -vë is related to the preposition ve "as, like", both probably descend from be in Primitive Elvish. We could then argue that the original melin-be would rather come out as melimbë in Quenya. On the yet other hand (if we can postulate even more hands), adjectives in -in seem to be shortened from longer forms in -ina, and then one could argue that this a would be preserved before an ending. Thus, "dearly" could be melinavë. (I'd say, forget about melin and start from melda or moina instead, which adjectives also mean "dear". Then we can simply have meldavë or moinavë!)

In English at least, an adverb does not necessarily describe a verbal action. It can also be used to modify the meaning of an adjective (or even another adverb). This is a kind of meta-description, one descriptive word describing another. Whether Quenya adverbs (or specifically the ones in -vë) can be used in such a way, nobody knows. For instance: Knowing that valaina is the Quenya adjective "divine", can we feel free to use valainavë vanya for "divinely beautiful"? Tolkien provided aqua as the adverb "fully, completely, altogether, wholly" (WJ:392 – this is a "basic" adverb not derived from an adjective, unlike the English glosses in -ly that are derived from the adjectives "full, complete, whole"). It does seem very likely that this aqua can modify an adjective, e.g. aqua morë "completely dark". If this is not so, Tolkien ought to have told us...!

It may be noted that in some early sources, Tolkien uses adverbs in -o rather than -vë. The one attestation of the latter is, as I have pointed out, andavë vs. the adjective anda "long". However, there exists an early "Qenya" sentence which translates as "the Elves were lying long asleep at Kovienéni [later: Cuiviénen]"; see Vinyar Tengwar #27. In this sentence, the adverb "long" appears as ando, not andavë. Further examples of adverbs in -o include ento "next" and rato "soon" (from an "Arctic" sentence quoted in Father Christmas Letters – obviously a form of "Qenya", though appearing in a context that has nothing to do with Tolkien's serious literary output). We may even include the adverb voro "ever, continually" from such a relatively late source as the Etymologies (entry BOR), though in this word, the final -o may be simply the stem-vowel reduplicated and suffixed.
	The example ando "long" (not to be confused with the noun "gate"), which is obviously derived from the adjective anda, would seem to indicate that the ending -o can be used to derive adverbs from adjectives. May we then have (say) tulco "firmly" from tulca "firm", as an alternative to tulcavë? Or are we to understand that Tolkien, by the LotR period, had dropped -o as an adverbial ending? If so he introduced -vë as a replacement, not an alternative (changing ando to andavë). 
	We cannot know whether -o is still a valid adverbial ending in LotR-style Quenya. But when deriving adverbs from adjectives, I would recommend using the "safe" (or at least safer) ending -vë instead. In the exercises below, I have not used the ending -o, but only -vë. On the other hand, at this stage I would not tamper with attested adverbs like ento, rato, voro (changing them to ?entavë etc.)

Do adverbs, like adjectives, agree in number? It has been suggested that andavë is actually a plural adverb, agreeing with a plural verb (andavë laituvalmet "long we will praise them" – notice the plural subject ending attached to the verb). If so, -vë could be the plural form of a singular adverbial ending -va, completely unattested. According to this system, we would have such variation as i nér lendë andava "the man traveled long" (singular adverb corresponding to a singular verb) vs. i neri lender andavë "the men traveled long" (plural adverb to go with a plural verb). But this is 100 % hypothetical. While nothing can be ruled out at this stage, I tend to believe that this there is no such variation. More likely, the adverbial ending -vë is invariable in form, related to the preposition ve "as, like" as suggested above.

In closing, I should mention that some Quenya adverbs are derived from other parts of speech than adjectives. In Namárië we have oialë as the adverb "for ever" (or "everlastingly", as the interlinear translation in RGEO:67 goes). But the Etymologies, entry OY, indicates that oialë is properly or in its origin a noun meaning "everlasting age". Apparently this noun is used as an adverb in Namárië.
Phrases involving prepositions very often have an adverbial function to begin with, and sometimes unitary adverbs may evolve from them: In Cirion's Oath we have tennoio as another Quenya word meaning "for ever", but in UT:317, Tolkien explains that this form is simply a contraction of two originally distinct words: the preposition tenna "up to, as far as" + oio "an endless period".
Finally we have what I have already called "basic adverbs", not derived from any other part of speech. Mai "well", aqua "completely" and sí "now" mentioned above are just three examples; we may also include words like amba "up(wards)", háya "far off" (read perhaps haiya as the Third Age form), oi "ever", and others.

THE PRONOMINAL ENDINGS -LTË AND -T
In Lesson Eight, we introduced three pronominal endings: -n or longer -nyë for "I", -l or longer -lyë for "you", and -s for "it". But obviously there are more pronouns, and we will now attempt to identify the pronominal endings of the Third Person Plural: as subject "they", as object "them".
	There are several endings to be considered. Cirion's Oath in UT:305 includes the word tiruvantes, in UT:317 translated "they will guard it". The verb tir- "watch, guard", the future-tense ending -uva "shall, will" and the pronominal ending -s "it" ought to be familiar to the student by now. We are left with -nte- as the element translated "they". UT:317 explicitly confirms that -ntë is the "inflection of 3[rd person] plural where no subject is previously mentioned". Like most brief linguistic notes of Tolkien's, this one does require some exegesis. In the original version of this course, I presented the following interpretation:

I shall here assume that Tolkien's intention is this: If a sentence has a plural subject that has been "previously mentioned", occurring before the verb, the verb would only receive the normal plural ending -r (e.g. i neri matir apsa "the men eat meat"). But if there is no subject "previously mentioned", the ending -r is replaced by -ntë, meaning "they": Matintë apsa, "they eat meat". Apparently, this ending would still be used if the subject is identified later in the sentence; perhaps we can have such a sentence as matintë apsa i neri "they eat meat(,) the men (do)". Cirion's Oath also identifies the subject later in the sentence (nai tiruvantes i hárar mahalmassen mi Númen "be it that they will guard it, the ones who sit on thrones in the west...")

But as I also indicated in the original version of this course, it cannot ruled out that this ending -ntë is only used for a subject not "previously mentioned" – in the absolute sense. If so, matintë is not a good translation for "they eat" if the word "they" refers back to some persons mentioned earlier in the text or conversation.
	There is, as I also mentioned in the first version of this course, another ending for "they" in early material. In LT1:114, we find the "Qenya" form tulielto "they have come", including the ending -lto for "they". New examples of this pronoun were published in 2004: Tolkien's "Qenya" text Sí Qente Feanor or "Thus Spoke Fëanor" includes such forms as nalto, túkielto and listanelto. Christopher Gilson interprets them as meaning possibly "they are", "they looked for" and "they blessed", respectively (Parma Eldalamberon #15, p. 37-40). This ending was current as late as when Tolkien wrote Fíriel's Song, which includes the forms cárielto "they made" and antalto "they gave" (LR:72).
Whether it is also valid in LotR-style Quenya is another matter. The ending -lto looks somewhat strange compared to the other known pronominal endings. Of the pronominal endings attested in LotR or during the post-LotR period, all the subject endings that constitute a separate syllable end in the vowel -ë (six endings in all, if we include -ntë discussed above). A suffix -lto ending in -o doesn't seem to fit in very well.
In the first version of this course, I noted that "some would alter -lto to -ltë in LotR-style Quenya, though there is no evidence for such an ending". Now there may be at least some indirect evidence for it. As we will later discuss, various endings meaning "we" appears as -lwë (or -lvë) and -lmë. The basic Elvish root-words for "we" have also been published, they are WE (!) and ME (VT48:10). The longer endings thus combine the original root with an l; Tolkien explained that this is "the plural l-infix that in Q. preceded the pronominal subject elements" (VT48:11). Furthermore, Tolkien cited the root for "they" as TE (VT48:24), and if we combine these pieces of information, we land on -ltë as the ending added to verbs to express "they". This ending as such does not yet appear in published material, but the indirect evidence in its support seems pretty solid. It would be Tolkien's later version of the well-attested ending -lto occurring in early material.
The ending -ntë that I used for "they" in the first version of this course may then be seen as having a more limited use. I actually described this other possible interpretation of Tolkien's words in the first version as well: "According to the strict interpretation of Tolkien's note about -ntë, this pronominal ending cannot be used for any 'they' that refers back to some group mentioned earlier, even if it was in a quite different sentence. The ending -ntë would only point forward, to some group that is to be identified later in the text or sentence (as is the case in Cirion's Oath). 'They' referring back to some other group (already mentioned in another sentence) would require a quite different ending, perhaps the -lto attested in earlier sources." I now conclude that this early ending was later reborn as -ltë. This is the ending used for "they" in the exercises below. 
Hence we can – presumably – have forms like these, with -ltë attached to various tenses of pusta- "to stop":

	Aorist pustaltë "they stop"
	Past pustaneltë "they stopped"
	Future pustuvaltë "they will stop"
	Perfect upustieltë "they have stopped" 

As indicated above, I now conclude that the ending -nte- seen in the form tiruvantes = "they will guard it" has a more specialized meaning. It still demonstrates that a second pronominal ending can be attached following an ending for "they", and this second ending denotes the object of the sentence. This brings us over to another question: What is the object ending for "them"?
	Discussing adverbs above, we have already quoted the sentence andavë laituvalmet "long we will praise them" from LotR. Knowing that laituvalmet means "we will praise them", we can easily isolate the final -t as the element translated "them". (The cunning student will also be able to isolate a pronominal ending signifying "we"; it was mentioned in passing above.)
As usual, things are not quite crystal clear. The ones being praised here are Frodo and Sam, two persons. Some have therefore assumed that this -t is a dual "them", even suggesting that laituvalmet may be rendered "we will praise both [of them]". Those adhering to this theory have been encouraged by the fact that there is also a dual ending -t (as in ciryat "2 ships"; look up Lesson Three again). Nothing can be definitely ruled out at this time, but the ending -t "them" would seem to reflect the above-mentioned root TE "they, them" (VT48:24). I don't think -t is exclusively dual, but in any case, this is one ending that can be translated "them". Hence, forms like the following must be possible:

	Tirnenyet = "I watched them"
	Melilyet = "you love them"
	Hiruvanyet = "I will find them"
	
and even:

	Pustaneltet = "they stopped them"

Likely, this would refer to two different groups. "They stopped themselves" is probably expressed in another way (presumably involving the reflextive pronoun intë "themselves").

INFINITIVES WITH OBJECT PRONOUNS
So far, we have identified two pronominal endings that can be used as the object of the sentence, -s for "it" and -t for "they". As is evident from attested examples (tiruvantes "they will guard it", laituvalmet "we will praise them"), these object endings may be attached to a finite verb following another pronominal ending denoting the subject. But what about a longer verbal phrase involving an infinitive?
	Let us start with a sentence like i mól veryanë cenë i aran ar i tári, "the thrall dared to see the king and the queen". Here we have a finite verb veryanë "dared" + an infinitive cenë "to see". Now we want to get rid of the whole phrase "the king and the queen", replacing it with the object pronoun "them", hence "the thrall dared to see them". (Notice that I deliberately construct an example that will be compatible with the theory of -t "them" being dual only, even though I don't believe this to be the case...unnecessary risks are just that, unnecessary!) Well, where do we put the ending -t? Quite obviously, it must be attached to the infinitive cenë "to see". Cenet, then? Or, since the infinitive cenë seems to represent Primitive Elvish keni and primitive -i changes to -ë only when final, one might think that cenit is a better choice. So "the thrall dared to see them" = i mól veryanë cenit, right?
	Wrong! In Vinyar Tengwar #41, July 2000, it was revealed that the infinitive of primary verbs is formed with the ending -ita if any pronominal endings are to be added (actually the suffix is only -ta-, which added to an infinitive like cenë = ceni- produces cenita-). Tolkien in some of his late (ca. 1969) notes refers to "the general (aorist) 'infinitive' formed by adding -i (not as such capable of any further suffixion; with pronominal affixes it was the stem of the aorist tense); the particular infinitive with -ita differing in use from the preceding mainly in being able to receive pronominal object affixes" (VT41:17). He went on to quote the example caritas, "doing it" (or probably just as well "to do it") – an infinitive of the verb car- "do" with the object ending -s "it" attached.
As I pointed out in the previous lesson, it is unclear whether the reference to an infinitive constructed by "adding -i" implies that there is a contemporary Quenya infinitive that shows the ending -i. Tolkien may simply refer to the original form of the infinitive ending, e.g. Primitive Elvish kweti as the form underlying the contemporary Quenya form quetë "(to) speak" (attested in the sentence polin quetë "I can speak"). Anyhow, this infinitive was "not as such capable of any further suffixation", apparently to avoid confusion with "the stem of the aorist tense". The infinitive of car- "make, do" would be carë (cari-), but if we tried to add an ending like -s "it" directly to it in order to express "to do it", the resulting form **caris would look just like the aorist "it does" or "it makes". The actual form caritas is not ambiguous.
In the case of "they make" vs. "to make them", there would be a distinction even without the extra -ta-, since the subject ending for "they" (presumably -ltë) differs from the object ending "them" (-t). Even so, Tolkien apparently decided to eliminate any possible confusion between aorist forms with subject endings and infinitives with object endings: The infinitives insert -ta- between the infinitive proper and the pronominal suffixes. Therefore, the infinitive "to see" is expanded from cenë to cenita- when it is to receive any object ending. "The thrall dared to see them" must actually be i mól veryanë cenitat, the extra -ta- intruding between the infinitive and the object ending. 
	It is unclear whether A-stem verbs behave in the same way. Vinyar Tengwar #41 published only a very brief quote from Tolkien's 1969 notes (the editor apparently needed the space for more important things, like an in-depth article about the optimal Bulgarian translation of the Ring Poem). The quote, reproduced above, apparently only deals with the infinitive form of primary verbs – the ones that have aorists in -ë, or with further endings -i-. Certain writers have assumed that A-stem verbs functioning as infinitives would similarly add -ta before any object pronominal endings are suffixed. So with verbs like metya- "to end, to put an end to" and mapa- "to seize", it would work something like this:

	Meriltë metyatas "they want to end it" 
	I ohtari úvar mapatat "the warriors will not seize them"
		
Perhaps such sentences are quite OK, perhaps not. Presently there is no way of telling. One may doubt that the ending -ta would be added to the stem of a verb that ends in -ta already, like orta- "to lift up, to raise". Should "I can lift it" really be polin ortatas? Generally, Quenya is not very fond of two adjacent similar-sounding syllables, like the two ta's here.
	Luckily, we can work around this uncertainty. We can simply avoid attaching object pronominal endings to the infinitives of A-stem verbs, since we know at least some independent object pronouns (e.g. te "them" instead of the ending -t – so for, say, "you wanted to seize them" we can have mernelyë mapa te instead of the uncertain construction ?mernelyë mapatat). We will discuss the independent pronouns in a later lesson. In the exercises below, the infinitives in -ita + object suffix only involve primary verbs.

It is interesting to notice that Tolkien translated caritas as "doing it" (VT41:17). This may suggest that such infinitives can also function as the subject of a sentence, e.g. cenitas farya nin "seeing it is enough for me" (farya- verb "to suffice, to be enough"; nin "to/for me").

THE PAST TENSE OF INTRANSITIVE VERBS IN -YA 
In Lesson Six, we set out some rules for "regular" past tense formation, but we also touched on various "irregular" forms (that is, past tense formations that don't readily fall into the most common patterns). Some of these may actually form sub-groups that are "regular" enough according to their own special rules.
	Let me first introduce a couple of terms that will facilitate the following discussion: transitive and intransitive. In linguist terminology, a verb is said to be transitive if it can have an object. Most verbs readily can, but not all. A verb like "to fall" is not transitive (= intransitive). The subject itself may "fall", but the subject cannot "fall" something else; there can be no object. A typical intransitive verb only describes an action which the subject itself performs, not an action that is, or can be, done to someone or something. (I say "typical", for Quenya actually has some verbs that cannot even have a subject, the so-called impersonal verbs – to be discussed in Lesson Eighteen.)
	Some verbs form pairs where one verb is transitive, the other intransitive. The subject may raise an object (transitively), but the subject by itself can only rise (intransitively) – not involving any object at all. Other examples of such pairs include transitive "to fell" vs. intransitive "to fall", or transitive "to lay" vs. intransitive "to lie". But in many cases, English uses the same verb form both intransitively and transitively, e.g. "to sink". A subject may sink an object (e.g. "the torpedo sank the ship", transitive verb with both subject and object), or the subject just "sinks" all by itself, so to speak (e.g. "the ship sank", intransitive verb with subject only – obviously "sank" is used with two quite different meanings here). Such ambiguity may also occur in Quenya; for instance, orta- covers both "to raise" and "to rise", and the context must be taken into account to determine which meaning is relevant. (To be more concrete: check if the sentence includes an object or not! E.g. i aran orta = "the king rises", but i aran orta ranco = "the king raises an arm".)
	Let us then consider some "irregular" Quenya verbs. The verb farya- "to suffice, to be enough" is said to have the past tense farnë, irregular in the sense that the ending -ya of the verbal stem drops out before the past tense ending -në: We might have expected **faryanë, but the Etymologies lists a few more verbs that exemplify the same phenomenon: Vanya- "to go, depart, disappear" has the past tense vannë. (Likely, Tolkien later replaced the verb vanya- with auta- of similar meaning, but we may still consider it here.) To these examples from the Etymologies (see entries PHAR, WAN) we may add a verb the student is supposed to have memorized as part of the previous lesson: lelya- "to go, proceed, travel" from WJ:363. Its past tense is not **lelyanë, but lendë, seemingly a quite irregular form (though not as wildly irregular as English "to go" vs. its past tense "went"!) The sudden appearance of the cluster nd is no big mystery; it arises by nasal-infixion of the original root LED. (This root is listed in the Etymologies, though according to a later source, LED is reworked from even more primitive DEL. Lelya- is meant to descend from primitive ledyâ- [ledjâ-], "since dj became ly medially in Quenya" [WJ:363]. The past tense lendë would come from lendê, not so dissimilar from the verb ledyâ- as these forms later became.) The real mystery here is this: Why do the verbs farya-, vanya-, and lelya- surrender the ending -ya in the past tense?
	It may be noted that by their meaning, all three verbs are distinctly intransitive: To suffice, to disappear, to go. This could be just a coincidence, of course, but the Etymologies provides us with another highly interesting example. In the entry ULU, a verb ulya- "to pour" is listed. Tolkien indicated that it has a double past tense. If the verb is used in a transitive sense, as in "the servant poured water into a cup", the past tense "poured" is ulyanë. This would be an entirely "regular" form. However, if the verb is used intransitively, the past tense of ulya- is ullë instead (presumably representing older unlë, formed by nasal-infixion from ul- without the ending -ya; cf. villë as the past tense of vil- "to fly", though in the latter case no ending -ya appears in any form of the verb). So if you want to translate "the river poured into a gorge", the form to use is ullë, not ulyanë.
	It seems, then, that we can discern a pattern here: Intransitive verbs in -ya drop this ending in the past tense; the past tense is formed from the ending-less root, as in the case of primary verbs. Or put differently: In the past tense, intransitive verbs in -ya surrender this ending to masquerade as primary verbs. In the rare cases where a verb can be both transitive and intransitive, the ending -ya is retained when it is used in a transitive sense (as in the pa.t. form ulyanë), but dropped when the verb is used in an intransitive sense (ullë).
	Why this should be so is of course entirely obscure. In other tenses than the past, the verb ulya- "to pour" would seem to appear in the same form no matter whether it is transitive or intransitive (aorist ulya "pours", future ulyuva "shall pour" etc.) But it was never Tolkien's intention to make a new Esperanto, a language aiming to be 100 % regular and logical. Within his mythos, Quenya is supposed to be an ordinary spoken tongue, developed over thousands of years. Hence, Tolkien may deliberately have included what you will find in any natural language: certain features that don't necessarily make immediate "sense".
	Most verbs in -ya are transitive, and would presumably retain their ending in the past tense, before the pa.t. suffix -në is added (as in the attested example ulyanë). Here are most of the remaining intransitive verbs in -ya, though Tolkien did not actually mention any past tense forms in their case: hwinya- "to swirl, to gyrate" (past tense hwinnë?), mirilya- "to glitter" (pa.t. mirillë? – cf. ulya-, pa.t. ullë), ranya- "to stray" (pa.t. rannë?), súya- "to breathe" (pa.t. súnë?), tiuya- "to swell, grow fat" (pa.t. tiunë?) The verb yerya- can be both transitive "to wear (out)" and intransitive "to get old". Perhaps the past tense is yeryanë in the former sense and yernë in the latter sense, just like we have transitive ulyanë coexisting with intransitive ullë as the past tense "poured"?
I should add that all of this is somewhat hypothetical, since Tolkien did not actually mention the past tense of very many intransitive verbs in -ya. But the student should at least notice the attested "irregular" past tenses, including the double pa.t. of ulya- "to pour" and especially lendë "went" as the rather unexpected past tense form of lelya- "to go, travel, proceed".

NOTE: The perfect tense of this verb appears as lendië in some texts. SD:56 indicates that in one draft, Tolkien used lendien rather than utúlien for "I have come" in Elendil's Declaration ("out of the Great Sea to Middle-earth have I come"). Lendien would mean, literally, "I have gone/went/traveled" or something similar. This perfect form is not augmented, possibly simply because Tolkien had not yet invented the augment that is usually prefixed in the perfect tense. I would normally supply it, using elendië as the perfect of lelya-. I have used this perfect in (the key to) one of the exercises below.

A potential counterexample to the theory set out above would be the form ahyanë, used as the past tense "changed" in the intransitive sense: Manen lambë Quendion ahyanë[?] "How did the language of Elves change?" (PM:395) The form ahyanë suggests a verb ahya- "to change". But this verb has a rather peculiar form (the sound hy is rare in the middle of words). If the ending -ya were to drop out here, it is difficult to imagine how -në could be added to the remaining part of the verb and still produce a word that agrees with Quenya phonology. Since hy is a unitary sound (a stronger version of the h often heard in English huge, human), maybe this verb is not perceived as containing the ending -ya at all: Ahya would be analyzed as a-hy-a rather than ah-ya.

PASSIVE PARTICIPLES
Then we will return to the participles. The logical counterpart of the active participles discussed in the previous lesson is obviously the passive participles. They are often called "past participles" instead (just like the active participles are frequently referred to as "present participles"). However, the term "passive participle" is very fitting. This participle is an adjectival form derived from the stem of a verb, and it describes the state that something or someone is left in by being exposed to the corresponding verbal action. For instance: If you hide something, it is hidden. Therefore, "hidden" is the passive participle of the verb "to hide". The word "hidden" can be used as an adjective, both predicatively ("the treasure is hidden") and attributively ("hidden treasure"). The passive participle "hidden" contrasts with the active participle "hiding": The latter describes the state of the subject, the acting party, whereas the passive participle describes the state of the object, the one passively exposed to the verbal action.
	In the case of intransitive verbs, where no object can be involved, this participle describes the state of the subject itself after carrying out the verbal action in question: If you fall, you will thereafter be fallen; if you go, you will thereafter be gone. Here the often-used term "past participle" makes sense; participles like fallen or gone describe the condition of the subject after carrying out some "past" action. They are seen to contrast with the "present participles" (active participles) falling and going, which describe the condition of the subject while the verbal action is still "present" or on-going. But as long as we are dealing with transitive verbs – and most verbs are transitive – I still think it is better to speak of "active participles" vs. "passive participles".
	In English, quite a few passive participles have the ending -en, as in the examples hidden, fallen above. But in very many cases, English passive participles are similar in form to the past tense of verbs, though the words have wildly different functions (a form like tormented is a past tense verb in a sentence like "they tormented the Dwarf", but a passive participle in a sentence like "the Dwarf was tormented"). So what do the corresponding Quenya forms look like?
	The vast majority of Quenya participles seem to be formed by means of the ending -na or its longer variant -ina. Some attested A-stem participles are seen to include the longer ending, the final -a of the verbal stem and the i of the suffix -ina merging into a diphthong -ai- (which receives the stress, like any diphthong in the second-to-last syllable). An example is provided by the phrase Arda Hastaina, "Arda Marred", an Elvish term for the world as it is, tainted by the evil of Morgoth (MR:254). This hastaina "marred" would seem to be the passive participle of a verb hasta- "to mar", not otherwise attested. However, the verb hosta- "to gather, collect, assemble" is attested both in the Etymologies (entry KHOTH) and in the Markirya poem (MC:222-223). Its passive participle turns up in Fíriel's Song, where it is implied to be hostaina (attested in the form hostainiéva "will be gathered"; the suffix -iéva "will be" is hardly valid in LotR-style Quenya, but the underlying participle certainly is). We can probably conclude that A-stems in -ta nearly always have passive participles in -taina. Since anta- means "give", the participle "given" would be antaina. Since orta- means "raise" (or used intransitively, "rise"), the word for "raised" (and "risen") would seem to be ortaina.
	Perhaps the ending -ina can be added to nearly all A-stems? From a verb like mapa- "grasp, seize", I think we may well derive mapaina as the participle "grasped, seized". (Indirect support for this: The ending -ina is also used to derive adjectives, as in valaina "divine" – obviously an adjectival formation based on Vala, which noun is analogous in form to a simple A-stem like mapa-. Indeed it is hinted that the noun Vala is originally derived from a simple A-stem verb vala- "to order, to have power": WJ:403-4. If it had remained a verb only, valaina could have meant "ordered" instead.)
	In his Quenya translation of the Hail Mary, Tolkien used aistana rather than aistaina for "blessed" (VT43:28, 30). The verb "to bless" would seem to be aista-. Perhaps Tolkien here derived the past participle by means of the short ending -na instead of -ina to avoid two concomitant syllables containing the diphthong ai (we cannot know if ?aistaina would be a valid form at all). 
	The behaviour of A-stems in -ya is slightly obscure. In the Etymologies, Tolkien listed a root PER "divide in middle, halve" (cf. Sindarin Perian "halfling, Hobbit"). He then mentioned a Quenya word perya, evidently a verb preserving the root meaning. Immediately after perya, he listed an undefined word perina. Is this the passive participle "halved"? I think this is almost certainly the meaning of this word, but perhaps we should see it as an independent adjectival formation derived directly from the root, not as the passive participle of the verb perya-. (We might have excepted périna with a long é if it were a passive participle; see below regarding the rácina pattern.)
	Elsewhere in the Etymologies, in the entry GYER, we have a verb yerya- "to wear (out), get old". The same entry also mentions a word yerna "worn". As far as the English glosses are concerned, yerna could be the passive participle of the verb yerya-. Should we conclude, then, that verbs in -ya form their passive participles by replacing this ending with -na? Again I think yerna is not actually the participle of yerya-, but rather an independent adjectival formation. The following facts support this: 1) Tolkien traced yerna all the way back to Primitive Elvish gyernâ, so it was not derived from the verb later; 2) Tolkien actually listed the form yerna before he mentioned the verb yerya-, again suggesting that the former is not to be derived from the latter, 3) yerna is glossed "old" as well as "worn", and the first gloss suggests that yerna is to be considered an independent adjective, not a participle. Same story as with perina above, then. This would also go for a pair like halya- "veil " vs. halda "veiled, hidden" (entry SKAL1): The latter form Tolkien referred to Primitive Elvish skalnâ (initial sk- becoming h- and ln becoming ld in Quenya). It may well be that in Primitive Elvish, skalnâ did count as the passive participle of the verbal root SKAL- "screen, hide", but its Quenya descendant halda has developed into an independent adjective (one of Tolkien's glosses for this word, "shady", is also an adjective). Thus, halda is not necessarily the passive participle of the verb halya- derived from the same root, though it has somewhat the same meaning as the actual participle would have.
	So how, really, are we to treat verbs in -ya? I think a highly interesting clue is provided in MR:326 (cf. MR:315), where Christopher Tolkien tells us that in a post-LotR text, Tolkien used Mirruyainar or Mirroyainar for "the Incarnate" (plural). This may seem to be passive participles inflected as nouns: "incarnated ones". Removing the plural ending -r, we are left with mirruyaina/mirroyaina as a possible participle "incarnated" – and if we peel away the presumed participial ending as well, the verb "to incarnate" would seem to be mirruya- or mirroya-. Tolkien later changed the word Mirruyainar/Mirroyainar to Mirroanwi, not involving any -ya- at all, but the abandoned forms may still give away what the passive participle of a verb in -ya should look like. Such verbs would seem to have participles in -yaina, just like verbs in -ta have participles in -taina. So given that lanya- is the verb "to weave", the word for "woven" may well be lanyaina. The regular passive participles of the verbs perya- "to halve", yerya- "to wear (out)" and halya- "to veil" would similarly be peryaina, yeryaina, halyaina (meaning much the same as the related adjectives perina, yerna, halda, of course, but the latter may not so clearly imply that the described states are inflicted – see below regarding harna- vs. harnaina).
	We can probably conclude that nearly all A-stem verbs form their passive participles by adding -ina. (According to VT43:15, there exists a description of the Quenya verbal system where Tolkien explicitly confirms that -ina is the suffix of what he called the "general 'passive' participle".) Besides aistana rather than ?aistaina for "hallowed", the only exception occurring in the published corpus is the form envinyanta "healed" or more literally "renewed" (MR:405). It would seem to be the passive participle of a verb envinyata- "renew" (not attested by itself, but cf. Aragorn's title Envinyatar "Renewer"). This participle is formed by means of nasal-infixion intruding before the ending -ta. We cannot know whether the more "regular" formation ?envinyataina, itself unattested, would be a valid form.
However, the ending -ina is not only used in the case of A-stems; primary verbs with c or t as their final consonant also form their passive participles by means of this ending. The Markirya poem includes a form rácina "broken" (man tiruva rácina cirya[?] "who shall see [/watch] a broken ship?", MR:222). Tolkien explicitly identified rácina as the passive (or "past") participle of the verb rac- "to break" (MC:223). The verb "to reckon, to count" is not-, and in Fíriel's Song we have nótina as the passive participle "counted". It seems, then, that primary verbs ending in unvoiced stops like c or t form their passive participles by lengthening the stem-vowel and adding the long ending -ina. We don't seem to have any attested example of the participle of a primary verb ending in -p (another unvoiced stop), but it would in all likelihood slip into the same pattern: The verb top- "to cover" would have the passive participle tópina "covered". (The verb top- is listed in the Etymologies; the poem Namárië in LotR may suggest that Tolkien later changed it to tup-. If so, the participle would of course be túpina instead.) Perhaps primary verbs in -v also form their passive participles according to this pattern, e.g. lávina "allowed, granted" from the verb lav- "allow, grant" (not to be confused with a similar-sounding verb meaning "lick"). We lack examples, though.
Attested examples don't exactly abound for other primary verbs either, but most of them probably prefer the short ending -na to -ina. MR:408 (cf. MR:405) indicates that Tolkien used vincarna for "healed"; the more literal meaning is transparently "renewed" or wholly literally "newly-made": Vin- is the stem of the Quenya adjective vinya "new", and carna "made" can only be the passive participle of the verb car- "make". So primary verbs ending in -r have passive participles in -rna (and because of the consonant cluster here arising, the stem-vowel preceding it obviously can not be lengthened as in the rácina class discussed above). Given that mer- is the Quenya verb "to want", the Wanted posters of the Quenya Wild West would evidently read Merna.
In the original version of this course, I wrote at this point: "Perhaps mérina, cárina (following rácina) would be possible alternative passive participles of mer-, car-, perhaps not. I think it is best to let the attested example carna guide us here." According to VT43:15, Tolkien actually cited the example carina "made" in the same description of the Quenya verbal system that we referred to above (we are told that the relevant manuscript may date from the forties). The late example rácina "broken" seemingly indicates that he eventually decided that in such formations, the stem-vowel was to be lengthened; carina would then become cárina. But it does seem that the alternative, longer forms would be permissible, so that the Wanted posters of the Quenya Wild West could also read Mérina.
For primary verbs in -m and -n, we have the example nahamna "summoned", passive participle of naham- "to summon" (VT45:21, LR:47). Also, the verb nam- "to judge" (namin "I judge", VT41:13) seems to have the passive participle namna. This form is attested as a noun meaning "statute" (as in Namna Finwë Míriello, "the Statute of Finwë and Míriel", MR:258). Apparently the participle namna, basically meaning "judged", is also used as a noun "judgement, juridical decision" and then "statute". As for primary verbs in -n, we may consider such nouns as anna "gift" and onna "creature" vs. the verbs anta- "to give" and onta- "to create" (see the entries ANA1, ONO in Etym) These are not primary verbs, of course (and in Quenya we would expect them to have the participles antaina, ontaina) – but the nouns anna, onna may descend from primitive participial formations based on the naked root-word, before -ta was added to produce the verbs as they appear in Quenya. So anna may come from a primitive participle "given", only later used as a noun "something that is given" = "gift". Onna might likewise represent an original passive participle "created", later used as a noun "created one" = "creature". I tend to think, therefore, that the ending -na can be added to the stems of Quenya primary verbs ending in -n. For instance, since cen- is the verb "to see", cenna may well be the passive participle "seen". But again, cénina may be a permissible alternative formation (perhaps we can also have námina for "judged", for all I know). Since VT43:15 reveals that the passive participle of car- may be c[á]rina as well as carna (as in Vincarna, MR:408), this now seems more likely than ever.
What about primary verbs in -l, such as mel- "love"? If we don't resort to the pattern of rácina once again, using mélina for "loved", the ending -na would have to be added directly to the verbal stem. But since **melna is not a possible Quenya word, ln would become ld, just as in one example discussed above (Quenya halda descending from Primitive Elvish skalnâ). The Etymologies actually lists a word melda, glossed "beloved, dear". These glosses are adjectives, but by their meaning they are of course very close to the participle "loved". So are we once again looking at an original participle that has developed into an independent adjective? Would the actual participle of mel- differ in form, precisely to distinguish it from this adjective? If so we might consider mélina again. Or is melda both the adjective "dear" and the participle "loved"? One may well ask whether there is any point in even trying to distinguish between them, since their meanings would be virtually the same.
Another example may also be considered: The Quenya verb "to bear, to wear, to carry" seems to be col-, though it has never been independently attested: Only various derivations are found in our corpus. One of them appears in MR:385: colla = "borne, worn" (also used as a noun "vestment, cloak", considered as "something that is worn"). Is this an example of the past participle of a primary verb ending in -l? Can we use mella for "loved", then? I tend to think that colla is rather an adjectival derivative – perhaps representing primitive konlâ with nasal-infixion of the root KOL (not in Etym). By its original derivation it would then parallel such a Quenya adjective as panta "open" (which Tolkien referred to Primitive Elvish pantâ, derived from the root PAT listed in Etym). I'm afraid no quite certain conclusion can be reached regarding the passive participles of primary verbs in -l, but I think the safest would be to either use the ending -da (representing earlier -na), or the longer ending -ina combined with lengthening of the stem-vowel.

Should passive participles agree in number, like normal adjectives do? In other words, should the final -a turn into -ë (for older -ai) if the participle describes a plural noun? As far as I can see, the corpus provides no example that could guide us. We recall that active participles (ending -la) do not agree in number. However, I tend to think that passive participles do behave like normal adjectives in this regard. We have just seen that in many cases it is difficult to even determine whether a form is to be considered a passive participle or an adjective, since adjectives may be derived with the same endings. (For that matter, this goes for English as well: An adjective like naked could well have been a passive participle by its form; however, there is no corresponding verb **nake "denude", so we can't set up a pair **nake/naked like we have love/loved.) Since adjectives like valaina "divine" and yerna "old" must be assumed to agree in number, it is difficult to imagine that participles like hastaina "marred" or carna "made" would not show such agreement. So I would change the final -a to -ë where the participle describes a plural noun (or several nouns).

In English, past/passive participles are used as part of the circumlocutions which simulate the function of a true perfect tense: "The Dwarf has seen the Elf"; "the woman is (or, has) fallen". But here Quenya would simply use the real perfect tense instead: I Nauco ecénië i Elda; i nís alantië. Perhaps ná lantaina is also permissible for "is fallen", but rendering "the Dwarf has seen the Elf" as **i Nauco harya cenna i Elda (copying the English wording directly) only results in nonsense.

A final note: In some cases, forms in -na that were originally participial or adjectival have themselves become A-stem verbs. The primitive word skarnâ, listed in the entry SKAR in the Etymologies, was perhaps originally a passive participle "torn, rent" (since the root SKAR itself is said to mean "tear, rend"). In Quenya, skarnâ turned into harna "wounded", probably felt to be an adjective rather than a participle. The funny thing is that harna- also came to be used as a verb "to wound", and if this verb has its own passive participle harnaina, we would have come full circle! In English, both harna and harnaina must be translated "wounded", but whereas harna would merely describe the state of being wounded, harnaina clearly implies that the wounds were inflicted. Cf. the English adjective "full" (merely describing a state) vs. the passive participle "filled" (implying that the state in question results from the act of filling).

Summary of Lesson Ten: Adverbs are words used to fill in extra information about the how, the when, or the where of the verbal action described in a sentence. In English at least, an adverb can also be used to modify the meaning of an adjective, or even another adverb. – The Quenya pronominal ending for "they" should apparently be -ltë (though in early material the ending appears as -lto instead); the corresponding object ending "them" seems to be -t (though some think it is dual "the two of them" only). – Primary verbs, which have infinitives in -ë (e.g. quetë "to speak, to say"), turn into forms in -ita- if a pronominal ending denoting the object is to be added (e.g. quetitas "to say it", with the ending -s "it"). – Available examples seem to suggest that intransitive verbs in -ya drop this ending in the past tense, which is formed directly from the stem instead (as if the verb were a primary verb). For instance, the pa.t. of farya- "to suffice" is farnë, not **faryanë. – Passive participles are adjectival derivatives that usually describe the state that is inflicted on someone or something by the corresponding verbal action: what you hide (verb) becomes hidden (passive participle). A-stem verbs seem to form their passive participles in -ina (e.g. hastaina "marred" from hasta- "to mar"). This ending is also used in the case of primary verbs ending in -t and -c, probably also -p and possibly even -v; in this class of verbs, the ending is combined with lengthening of the stem-vowel (e.g. rácina "broken" from rac- "to break"). It may be that the same pattern can be applied to all primary verbs, but verbs in -r are seen to take the simple ending -na instead, with no lengthening of the stem-vowel (carna "made" from car- "to make", though carina [read cárina?] is also attested). Primary verbs in -m, and probably also -n, would similarly take the simple ending -na (e.g. namna "judged" from nam- "to judge", cenna "seen" from cen- "to see"). It is somewhat uncertain how we should treat primary verbs in -l; if we are to use the simple ending -na, it would turn into -da for phonological reasons (e.g. melna > melda "loved" as the passive participle of mel- "to love"; melda is attested as an adjective "beloved, dear"). Passive participles probably agree in number in the same way as adjectives, changing -a to -ë if they describe a plural noun or several nouns.

VOCABULARY

nertë "nine"
núra "deep"
anwa "real, actual, true"
nulda "secret"
telda "final" (adjective derived from the same root as the name of the Teleri, the Third Clan of the Eldar, so called because they were always the last or hindmost during the March from Cuiviénen – far behind the Vanyar and the Noldor, who were more eager to reach the Blessed Realm)
linta "swift" (pl. lintë in Namárië, which poem refers to lintë yuldar = "swift draughts")
hosta- "to assemble, gather"
nórë "land" (a land associated with a particular people, WJ:413) 
lambë "tongue = language" (not "tongue" as a body part)
car- "to make, to do"
farya- "to suffice, to be enough", pa.t. farnë (NOT **faryanë – because the verb is intransitive?)
ve preposition "as, like"

EXERCISES

Translate into English:

A. Melinyet núravë.
B. Lindaltë vanyavë, ve Eldar lindar.
C. I nurtaina harma úva hirna [or, hírina].
D. Meriltë hiritas lintavë.
E. Haryalyë atta parmar, ar teldavë ecendielyet.
F. Anwavë ecénien Elda.
G. Ilyë nertë andor nar tirnë [or, tírinë].
H. Úmeltë merë caritas, an cenitas farnë.

Translate into Quenya:

I. They have traveled [/gone] secretly through the land.
J. The assembled Elves wanted to see it.
K. Written language is not like spoken language.
L. Five ships were not enough [/did not suffice]; nine sufficed.
M. I will really stop doing it [/truly cease to do it].
N. They swiftly gathered the nine terrified Dwarves.
O. Finally you will see them as you have wanted to see them.
P. They don't want to hear it.

LESSON ELEVEN  
The concept of cases. The Genitive case.

CASES
Lessons 1-10 have mainly been concerned with adjectives and verbs. As for nouns, we have only discussed how their plural and dual forms are constructed. There is, however, much more to say about the inflection of the Quenya noun. The second half of this course will predominantly be concerned with the elaborate case system of Quenya, which is indeed the most characteristic feature of the language. It is in the treatment of nouns that the grammatical structure of Quenya most clearly reflects two of Tolkien's inspirations, Finnish and Latin.
What, linguistically speaking, are cases? A noun may have many functions in a sentence. English may indicate what function a noun has by means of word order alone. In a sentence like "the man loves the woman", it is merely the word order that gives away the fact that "the man" is the subject and "the woman" is the object. The rule that very early slips into the subconscious mind of children exposed to English goes something like this: "The noun in front of the predicate verb is its subject, while the noun that comes after it is normally its object." Where word order is not enough, English may slip in clarifying prepositions in front of a noun, e.g. "to" in a sentence like "the Elf gives a gift to the Dwarf". There are languages that wouldn't need to have a "to" here; instead the noun "Dwarf" would occur in a special, inflectional form.
	Of course, Quenya also has prepositions, and the student will already have encountered several: nu "under", or "over", imbi "between", ve "as, like", mir "into" (which word, by the way, is formed from the simpler preposition mi "in"). But it is a characteristic feature of Quenya grammar that where English would often place a preposition in front of a noun, or rely on word order alone to indicate what the function of a noun is, Quenya would have a special form of the noun which by itself indicates its function. These various, specialized noun-forms are called cases. For instance, our example above – "the Elf gives a gift to the Dwarf" – would translate into Quenya something like i Elda anta anna i Naucon, where the case ending -n added to Nauco "Dwarf" corresponds to the English preposition "to". (This particular case is called the dative, to be fully discussed in Lesson Thirteen.)
	Certain prepositions may also demand that the word (noun or pronoun) following them appears inflected for some case – sometimes quite irrespective of the normal, independent function of this case. The relevant preposition is then said to "take" (or "govern") this or that case. The same phenomenon may be found in English, if one looks closely. While the case system is all but gone as far as English nouns are concerned, many English pronouns at least preserve a specific form that is used when the pronoun is the object and not the subject of a sentence. That is why "Peter saw he" is wrong; it must be "Peter saw him", with the object form of this pronoun. ("He" is the subject form instead, and therefore quite proper in a sentence like "he saw Peter".) But while the primary function of the form "him" is to function as the object of a sentence, very many prepositions also insist on being followed by this form. For instance, "from he" does not sound well; it must be "from him", though "him" is not the object of a sentence here.

The Quenya noun-forms so far discussed (whether singular, plural or dual) are examples of the nominative case. The most important grammatical function of the nominative is that this is the form a noun has when it functions as the subject of a verb. In Lesson Five, we very briefly touched on another form of the noun – the accusative case, which is the form a noun assumes when it is the object of a verb. Modern English does not preserve any distinction between nominative and accusative in nouns (though such a distinction persists in parts of the pronoun table, like nominative "he" vs. accusative "him" in our examples above). English nouns do not change their form dependent on whether the noun is the subject or the object of the sentence – and neither do nouns in Third Age Quenya. Tolkien imagined an archaic form of Quenya, "Book Quenya", that did have an accusative case distinct in form from the nominative. The noun "ship" would be cirya (pl. ciryar) if it was used as the subject of a sentence, but ciryá (pl. ciryai) if it appeared as the object: nominative vs. accusative. However, the distinct accusative disappeared from the language as spoken in Middle-earth; the forms cirya (pl. ciryar) came to be used both as subject and object. So either you can say that in Third Age Quenya, the nominative and the accusative cases have come to be identical in form, or you can say that the nominative has taken over the functions of the distinct accusative so that in effect, there is no accusative anymore. It boils down to exactly the same thing.
	But as far as we know, the accusative was the only Quenya case that was lost among the Exiles. The remaining cases, in addition to the nominative, are the genitive, the possessive, the dative, the allative, the ablative, the locative, and the instrumental. (I should add that learning the form and function of the cases is more important than learning their Latin names.) There is also a mysterious case which Tolkien listed in the Plotz Letter, but without discussing its name or use – so there is little I can say about it here.
	In Lessons 11-16, we will work our way through the list of Quenya cases, discussing their functions and how they are formed. Precisely because we have the blessed Plotz Letter, we are now on somewhat more solid ground than we usually find ourselves upon when discussing Quenya grammar. (Tolkien really should have sent Dick Plotz a list of pronouns and verb forms as well!) 

THE GENITIVE
We will start our discussion of the Quenya cases with the few Quenya noun forms that actually have a direct English equivalent (sort of). Where Quenya has nine or ten noun cases, English has only two: nominative and genitive. The nominative we have already discussed: In English as in Exilic Quenya, a noun appears in the nominative when it is the subject or the object of a noun. In both languages, the nominative singular may well be considered the simplest form of the noun. There is no special ending or other inflectional element to signal that "this is a nominative form"; rather it is the absence of any such element that tells us what case the noun appears in.
	All the other cases – or in English, the one other case – do display special endings, though. The one noun case of modern English, except for the nominative, is the genitive. (Please notice the spelling; I am tired of seeing "genetive" on certain mailing lists.) In the singular, it is formed by adding the ending 's to the noun, e.g. girl's from girl. In the plural, this ending normally merges with the plural ending -s, but its theoretical presence is hinted at in writing by means of an apostrophe (girls' for **girls's...Gollum would have loved the latter form).
The grammatical function of this case ought to be familiar enough to anyone who is capable of reading this text; already in Lesson Two, we briefly touched on this "ownership form". As stated in my handy Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English, the genitive case is used to indicate "source or possession". In a combination like the girl's doll, the genitive case is used to coordinate two nouns so as to indicate that the former is the owner or possessor of the latter. (This latter word which the genitive form connects with, like "doll" in our example, is sometimes said to be governed by the genitive. Conversely, the genitive form itself may be said to be "dependent on" this other word; this is Tolkien's wording in UT:317.) The English genitive does not necessarily connote "ownership" in the strictest sense, but may also be used to describe other kinds of "belonging", such as family relationships – e.g. the girl's mother. As for the genitive suggesting source, we can think of such phrases as the architect's drawings (the drawings made by the architect, not necessarily owned by him, but originating with him). The genitive noun may not even denote a sentient being, e.g. Britain's finest artists (the finest artists coming from/living in Britain). The latter example may also be termed genitive of location; Britain's finest artists are the finest artists located in Britain.
The noun that a genitive form is dependent on may well be another genitive, which in turn refers to a third noun – e.g. "the queen's sister's house". In principle we can string up an infinite number of genitives ("the king's father's aunt's brother's dog's... [etc. etc.]) – though people who care about style and legibility normally won't push this too far!
	Somewhat like adjectives, genitives can be used both attributively and as predicates. All the examples above are examples of attributive genitives, directly teamed up with a noun which the genitive is then dependent on. A genitive would however function as a predicate in a sentence like the book is Peter's. But rather than using genitives as predicates, English often resorts to circumlocutions (like the book belongs to Peter).
	Quite often, English does not use a genitive, but instead employs a phrase involving a preposition – predominantly of, e.g. the finest artists of Britain rather than Britain's finest artists. In some contexts, "of"-constructions are actually preferred to genitives, e.g. the end of the road rather than the road's end.
	So what about Quenya? The functions of English genitives, as well as English "of"-constructions, are covered by two Quenya noun cases; we will discuss the other relevant case in the next lesson. The functions of the case normally referred to as the Quenya genitive are somewhat more limited than the functions of the English genitive. But first of all, let us discuss how the Quenya genitive is formed.
	The basic Quenya genitive ending is -o. Starting from nouns that should be well known to the student by now, we can derive genitives like arano "king's", tário "queen's", vendëo "maiden's". If the noun ends in -o already, the genitive ending normally becomes "invisible". In UT:8 we have ciryamo for "mariner's". This is our sole attestation of this noun, but there is no reason to doubt that its nominative form "mariner" is likewise ciryamo. (This word is obviously derived from cirya "ship", and the masculine/personal ending -mo [WJ:400] is well attested elsewhere: hence cirya-mo = "ship-person".) A name like Ulmo could be both nominative "Ulmo" and genitive "Ulmo's"; the context must decide how the form is to be understood. (However, in the case of nouns in -o that have special stem-forms in -u, like curo, curu- "skillful device", we would probably see curuo as the genitive form.)
	Nouns ending in -a lose this vowel when the genitive ending -o is added: Since Quenya phonology does not permit the combination ao, it is simplified to o. For instance, Namárië demonstrates that the genitive "Varda's" is Vardo, not **Vardao. It follows, then, that a few otherwise distinct nouns coincide in the genitive; for instance, it would seem that anta "face" and anto "mouth" both have the genitive form anto. The context must be taken into account to determine which noun is meant.
	In the plural, the genitive ending -o is expanded to -on (as we shall see later, the plural marker -n occurs in several of the Quenya case endings). This ending -on is added to the simplest (nominative) plural form of the noun, in -r or -i. Hence an r-plural like aldar "trees" has the genitive plural aldaron "trees', of trees" – whereas an i-plural like eleni "stars" has the genitive form elenion "stars', of stars". (The normal stress rules still apply, so while eleni is accented on the first syllable, the stress must fall on -len- in the longer form elenion.) Both of these examples are attested in LotR: Namárië has rámar aldaron for "wings of trees" (a poetic circumlocution for "leaves"), and Frodo speaking in tongues in Cirith Ungol referred to Eärendil as ancalima elenion, "brightest of stars".
A prominent example of a genitive plural is the very title of the Silmarillion, formed from the nominative plural Silmarilli "Silmarils". This title makes good sense considering that it is properly only one half of a longer genitive phrase, found on the title page following the Ainulindalë and the Valaquenta: Quenta Silmarillion, "The History of the Silmarils". As is already evident, a Quenya genitive is often best rendered as an English of-construction, not as an English genitive with the ending -'s or -s':  "Stars' brightest" or "the Silmarils' History" would not be good English.
	As for dual genitive, Tolkien indicated that its ending is -to, combining the dual ending -t with the basic genitive ending -o. In the Plotz letter, Tolkien used the example ciryato, "of a couple of ships". There is one uncertainty here, not addressed in Plotz: Should the ending be -to also in the case of nouns that have dual forms in -u rather than -t? Or would the u simply replace t here, so that such nouns have dual genitives in -uo instead? Concretely: if the nominative "(the) Two Trees" is Aldu, should the genitive "of (the) Two Trees" be Alduto or Alduo? A form like Alduto would have a double dual marker, both u and t, but then attested plural genitives likewise include double plural markers (elenion, aldaron). Even so, I am not ready to rule out the possibility that genitives in -u should have genitives in -uo, e.g. i cala Alduo for "the light of (the) Two Trees". But since published material allows no certain conclusions in this matter, I have simply avoided the problem in the exercises below.

The special "stem forms" of some nouns are relevant for the formation of genitives as well. From rá (ráv-) "lion" we would have the genitive rávo "lion's"; from nís (niss-) "woman" we would have nisso "woman's". The plural forms would be rávion "lions', of lions" and nission "women's, of women" – cf. the nominative plurals rávi, nissi. I am not quite sure about the dual forms. Perhaps we can have ráveto, nisseto (an -e- intruding before the ending -to so that impossible consonant clusters do not arise; see later lessons for attested examples of an extra -e- being slipped in like this). 

So far the we have discussed the formation of the genitive; now we must return to its function. In English, the genitive very often indicates who owns what, as in "the man's house". Indeed this is the main function of the English genitive. However, the Quenya genitive case is not normally used to describe simple ownership of things. Tolkien expressly noted that properly, this case was "not [used] as a 'possessive', or adjectivally to describe qualities" (WJ:368).
	To understand its function it is often useful to bear in mind its ultimate derivation. Tolkien explained that "the source of the most used 'genitive' inflection of Quenya" was an ancient adverbial or "prepositional" element basically meaning from or from among. According to WJ:368, it originally had the form HO, or as an element added to nouns, -hō. The latter was the direct source of the Quenya case ending -o (plural -on). But according to the Etymologies, Quenya also had a regular preposition ho "from", and in WJ:368 Tolkien mentions hó- "from, off" as a verbal prefix, e.g. in hótuli- "come away" or literally "from-come".
	Even the case ending -o may occasionally express "from", the most basic meaning of the primitive element HO. In the prose Namárië, we have the line Varda...ortanë máryat Oiolossëo, "Varda...raised her hands from Oiolossë" (essentially the same in the version in LotR, but with a more complicated, "poetic" word order). The translation provided in LotR reads: "Varda...from Mount Everwhite has uplifted her hands" – Oiolossë "Ever-white" being a name of Taniquetil, the great mountain of the Blessed Realm where Manwë and Varda dwell.
	However, we don't have many examples of the Quenya genitive ending being used in the sense of "from". (For "from", Quenya regularly uses another case – the ablative, to be discussed in Lesson Fourteen.) Normally, the ending -o is seen to have acquired other, more abstract meanings. Nonetheless, one important function of the Quenya genitive still clearly reflects the idea of something coming "from" something or someone else: The Quenya genitive can be used to describe the source, origin or former possessor of something – so-called "derivative genitives" (WJ:369). Tolkien explained that róma Oromëo "Oromë's horn" refers to a horn coming from Oromë, not a horn that Oromë still has, or still had at the time that is being considered (WJ:168). Likewise, lambë Eldaron could not be used for "the language of the Eldar", for this would mean "the language coming from the Eldar"; Tolkien added that such a wording would only be valid "in a case where the whole language was adopted by another people" (WJ:368-369). In light of this, the genitive phrase Vardo tellumar "Varda's domes" in Namárië may not necessarily imply that the heavenly "domes" were somehow owned by Varda, but rather that she made them, that they originated with her.
Tolkien also listed "from among" as one of the meanings of the primitive element HO, and this meaning is discernable in Quenya examples of partitive genitive, the genitive indicating what something or someone is part of. In the phrase Eärendil Elenion Ancalima "Eärendil brightest of stars" (Letters:385), the words elenion ancalima actually imply "the brightest one among the stars": After his mythical transformation, Eärendil carrying the Silmaril is himself one of the stars, as indicated by the chapter The Mirror of Galadriel in Volume One of LotR ("Eärendil, the Evening Star, most beloved of the Elves, shone clear above...")
It seems that a partitive genitive can denote what something is part of in a wholly physical sense as well: In a phrase translated "the hands of the Powers", Fíriel's Song uses the plural genitive Valion for "of the Powers" (sc. "of the Valar" – as indicated by the Etymologies, entry BAL, Vali is a valid alternative to Valar as the plural form of Vala). The hands of the Valar, whenever they are incarnated, are physically part of the Valar themselves. 
The relationship between a place and something located in that place can also be expressed by means of the genitive case (cf. our own example "Britain's finest artists"). Namárië has Calaciryo míri for "Calacirya's jewels = the jewels of Calacirya" (Calacirya "Light-cleft" being a place in the Blessed Realm; notice that as in the case of Vardo "Varda's", the genitive ending -o swallows up the final -a). Perhaps this can also be analyzed as a partitive genitive, if something located in a place is somehow considered a part of that place. A more abstract, but perhaps basically similar construction is found in Círion's Oath: Elenna·nórëo alcar "the glory of the land of Elenna" or literally "(the) Elenna-land's glory". If we don't perceive the alcar or glory as being somehow "located" in Elenna (= Númenor), we must think of it as emanating from Elenna, so that the genitive denotes source. (See the next lesson concerning the comparable example alcar Oromëo.)
Family relationships are denoted by the genitive case. In Treebeard's Greeting to Celeborn and Galadriel occurs the genitive phrase vanimálion nostari, "parents of beautiful children" (Letters:308) or more literally "begetters of fair ones" (SD:73) – vanimáli meaning "fair ones" (genitive pl. vanimálion) and nostari meaning "begetters". One could also argue that this example shows that a noun denoting some kind of agent, and another noun denoting the one whom this agent does something to, can be coordinated by means of the genitive case (the "fair ones" were begotten by the begetters). Whatever the case, we have other examples of family relationships described by means of a genitive. In the Silmarillion Index, entry "Children of Ilúvatar", we learn that this is a translation of Híni Ilúvataro. Since Ilúvatar ("All-father") is a title of God, this example is somewhat profound. This also goes for Amillë Eruva lissëo "Mother of divine grace", a phrase occurring in Tolkien's Quenya translation of the Litany of Loreto (VT44:12; this is Amillë "Mother" + Eruva "divine, of God" + lissëo, genitive of lissë "grace, sweetness"). However, the genitive case would certainly also be used in more trivial phrases like "the king's sons" (probably i arano yondor). As long as the genitive case describes parents' relationship to their offspring, we could analyze the constructions as derivative genitives, parents being the physical origin of their children. But in the example Indis i·Ciryamo "the Mariner's Wife" (UT:8), the genitive unquestionably describes a family relationship and nothing else, since the "Mariner" is not in any way the source or origin of his wife.
	Perhaps we can generalize even further and say that relationships between people can be described by the Quenya genitive case. In WJ:369, Tolkien indicated that the genitive would be used in such a phrase as Elwë, Aran Sindaron "Elwë [= Thingol], King of the Sindar [Grey-elves]". Here the relationship is that between a ruler and the ruled. The same construction could however be used with reference to the area that is ruled: "King of Lestanórë" would be Aran Lestanórëo (Lestanórë being the Quenya name of the land called Doriath in Sindarin). 
The genitive case may also refer to things that are ruled: In a booklet which accompanied an exhibition at the Marquette University Archives in September 1983, Catalogue of an Exhibit of the Manuscripts of JRRT, Taum Santoski presented Tolkien's Quenya translation of the title "Lord of the Rings": Heru i Million, which is heru "lord" + i "the" + what is probably the plural genitive of a noun millë "ring", not otherwise attested. In the LotR itself, the Quenya word for "ring" is given as corma instead, Frodo and Sam being hailed as Cormacolindor or Ring-bearers (this word occurring in the Cormallen Praise). For "Lord of the Rings" we might therefore have expected Heru i Cormaron, but anyhow, the phrase Heru i Million confirms that the genitive case can be used to describe the relationship between a ruler and the ruled (people, area or thing).
	One of the most abstract meanings the genitive case may take on is of = about, concerning, as in Quenta Silmarillion "the History of (= concerning) the Silmarils". Another attested example is quentalë Noldoron "the history of the Noldor" (VT39:16). It may well be that the genitive can be used in this sense also in connection with verbs like nyar- "tell, relate" or quet- "speak", e.g. nyarnen i Eldo "I told about the Elf" or i Naucor quetir altë harmaron "the Dwarves speak of great treasures". We lack attested examples, though.
Sometimes the precise meaning of a genitive is difficult to clearly define. In the famous greeting elen síla lúmenn' omentielvo, "a star shines upon the hour of our meeting" or literally "...our meeting's hour", the genitive ending simply coordinates the nouns "meeting" and "hour" to indicate that the "meeting" took place in the "hour". In the phrase Heren Istarion "Order of Wizards" (UT:388), one may ask whether the genitive Istarion "of Wizards" implies that the order was founded by wizards, that it belongs to wizards, that it is made up of wizards, that it organizes or controls (or even is controlled by) wizards, etc. In all likelihood, several or all of these shades of meaning could be involved at the same time.
Also consider this passage from LotR, in the chapter The Houses of Healing in the third volume:

Thereupon the herb-master entered. 'Your lordship asked for kingsfoil, as the rustics name it,' he said, 'or athelas in the noble tongue, or to those who know somewhat of the Valinorean...'
	'I do so,' said Aragorn, 'and I care not whether you say now asëa aranion or kingsfoil, so long as you have some.'

So asëa aranion is the Quenya (or "Valinorean") for "kingsfoil", the herb called athelas in Sindarin. The word asëa refers to some kind of helpful or beneficial plant, but what precise meaning does the genitive plural aranion "of kings" express here? The kings didn't own or originate the kingsfoil; it was merely used by them for healing purposes. Unless this is comparable to a Calaciryo míri-construction because the kingsfoil was physically with the kings when they used it for healing ("life to the dying / In the king's hand lying!"), we must conclude that the genitive can also be used to indicate rather ill-defined states of "belonging", or mere association.
	Finally I may mention a function of the genitive that was unknown till early 2002, when I had already completed the first version of this course: It turns out that the phrase "full of [something]" is rendered as quanta "full" + a noun in the genitive case. Our attested example is somewhat profound: In his Quenya translation of the Hail Mary, first published in Tyalië Tyelelliéva #18, Tolkien rendered the phrase "full of grace" as quanta Eruanno. This seems to mean, literally, "full of God-gift" (since Eruanno is most likely the genitive form of Eruanna, cf. anna "gift"). The same construction would presumably be used in a more trivial context, so that "full of water" can be rendered quanta neno (the noun "water" being nén, nen-).
	We have no attested example of a Quenya genitive form functioning as the predicate of a sentence – but neither is there any particular reason to doubt that (say) "the ring is Sauron's" could be rendered i corma ná Saurondo. (The name Sauron probably has the stem-form Saurond-, given the derivation Tolkien indicated in Letters:380.)

Word order: In the prose version of Namárië, Tolkien placed a genitive in front of the noun it is dependent on: Aldaron rámar = literally "trees' wings", ómaryo lírinen = literally "in her voice's song", Calaciryo míri = literally "Calacirya's jewels" – cf. the interlinear translation in RGEO:66-67. (It should be noted that aldaron rámar was altered from rámar aldaron in the "poetic" version in LotR.) Above the entire "prose" version, Tolkien also placed the superscript Altariello nainië, "Altariel's (= Galadriel's) lament". Cirion's Oath displays the same word order: Nórëo alcar "the glory of the land" or literally "(the) land's glory", Elendil vorondo voronwë "the faith of Elendil the Faithful" or literally "Elendil (the) Faithful's faith" (the genitive ending being attached to the last word in the phrase Elendil voronda "Elendil [the] Faithful"; as usual, the ending displaces a final -a). In LotR we also have elenion ancalima for "stars' brightest [one]" = "the brightest [one] of [the] stars". So in normal prose, should the genitive always precede, just like the English genitive in 's? 
Not necessarily, it would seem. Most attested Quenya genitives follow the noun they are dependent on, with the same word order as an English of-construction. In the case of most of these attestations, we have no reason to suppose that the word order is particularly "poetic": Quenta Silmarillion "History of the Silmarils", Heru i Million "Lord of the Rings", lúmenn' omentielvo "on the hour of our meeting", asëa aranion "asëa [helpful plant] of kings" (kingsfoil; the two latter examples are from LotR), Híni Ilúvataro "Children of Ilúvatar" (Silmarillion Index), mannar Valion "into the hands of the Powers" (Fíriel's Song), Heren Istarion "Order of Wizards" (UT:388), Pelóri Valion "Fencing Heights of the Vali [Valar]" (MR:18), aran Sindaron "King of the Sindar" (WJ:369), Aran Lestanórëo "King of Doriath" (ibid.), i equessi Rúmilo "the sayings of Rúmil" (WJ:398), lambë Eldaron or lambë Quendion "the language of the Elves" (WJ:368/PM:395), Rithil-Anamo "Ring of Doom" (WJ:401). Where Tolkien rendered such a Quenya construction by employing an English genitive in -'s, he must necessarily reverse the original word order: Indis i·Ciryamo "The Mariner's Wife" (UT:8).  
One potential misunderstanding may be mentioned here: Occasionally people are seen to be completely seduced by English of-constructions, thinking that the genitive ending -o should appear at the same place in the phrase as the English preposition of does. Therefore they end up attaching the genitive ending to the wrong word in an hopeless attempt to copy the English order of all the elements in the phrase. Ask ten people to translate "the glory of Aman" into a Quenya genitive phrase, and it is a good bet that several of them will come up with something like i alcaro Aman, which actually means "the glory's Aman" or "Aman of the glory"! What we want is either Amano alcar (think "Aman's glory") or (i) alcar Amano.

As for the word order employed when a preposition is used in conjunction with a genitive phrase, the prose Namárië provides the strange example Vardo nu luini tellumar. Tolkien translated this as "under Varda's blue domes". As we see, the Quenya wording is literally "Varda's under blue domes", the preposition following the genitive noun – a most unxpected order, especially considering that this is supposed to be normal prose. Yet the prose Namárië also has ve aldaron rámar for "like the wings of trees" (or literally "like trees' wings"). Here the word order is exactly what we would expect, namely preposition + genitive + the noun it governs (not **aldaron ve rámar or whatever!) It is almost tempting to assume that Vardo nu luini tellumar is simply an error for ?nu Vardo luini tellumar. At this stage at least, I would always use the "English-style" word-order exemplified by the phrase ve aldaron rámar. Perhaps Vardo nu luini tellumar is an example of the exceedingly esoteric syntax preferred by the Eldar, whose thoughts are not like those of Mortal Men...or perhaps it is just a typo. We must await the publication of more material.

The use of the article: A genitive determines the noun it is dependent upon, just like the definite article does: Indis i·Ciryamo does mean "the Mariner's Wife" = "the Wife of the Mariner". It cannot be interpreted "a wife of the mariner" in an indefinite or undetermined sense, even though the definite article i is missing before the noun indis "wife, bride". Same with lambë Quendion "the language of the Elves" (PM:395, emphasis added); this cannot be interpreted "a language of the Elves", for lambë is determined by the genitive Quendion. Cf. English "the Elves' language" = "the [not a] language of the Elves", even though there is no "the" before "language" in a phrase like "the Elves' language".  One should understand that while the first noun of an English of-construction may or may not be definite and accordingly receives the appropriate article (the or a), a Quenya noun connecting with a following genitive is always determined, whether or not the article i is used. The system is actually the same as in English, with one minor complication added: whereas an English genitive always precedes the noun it is dependent on, a Quenya genitive may come after this noun as well. The latter word order inevitably makes one think of English of-constructions, but they are strictly not comparable as far as grammar is concerned – even though Quenya genitive phrases are often best rendered as English of-constructions.
Where the genitive follows the noun it is dependent upon, the use of the definite article before this noun is apparently optional. The noun is definite anyway, so including the article is in a way superfluous; yet we have the examples i arani Eldaron "the kings of the Eldar" (WJ:369) and i equessi Rúmilo "the sayings of Rúmil" (WJ:398). Equessi Rúmilo, arani Eldaron without the article would have meant precisely the same thing. Conversely, the phrase indis i ciryamo "the mariner's wife" could presumably have been expanded to read i indis i ciryamo "the wife of the mariner", again without altering the meaning.
No attested example of a preceding genitive is followed by an article. But if we can choose freely between i equessi Rúmilo and just equessi Rúmilo, perhaps this principle would still apply if the genitive is moved to the beginning of the phrase? Rúmilo equessi "Rúmil's sayings" is certainly a valid wording, but what about Rúmilo i equessi? Would this be equally possible, or would it sound just as weird as "Rúmil's the sayings" in English? I, for one, would avoid this uncertain and unattested construction.

A few prepositions govern the genitive case. It is said that ú "without" is normally followed by genitive, Tolkien mentioning the example ú calo "without light" (VT39:14). This calo would seem to be the genitive form of a noun cala "light" (as in Calaquendi "Light-elves" or Calacirya "Light-cleft").

Summary of Lesson Eleven: The Quenya noun is inflected for a number of cases, special noun-forms which clarify what function a noun has in a sentence. The forms so far discussed are examples of the nominative case, used when a noun is the subject or the object of a sentence. (A distinct "object" case, the accusative, had formerly occurred but fell out of use in Exilic Quenya.) The Quenya genitive case has the ending -o (displacing a final -a, where such is present); the plural form is -on (added to the nominative plural), whereas dual genitives receive the ending -to (but nouns with nominative dual forms in -u would possibly have genitive duals in -uo rather than -uto). The noun governed by the genitive can come either before or after it; Rúmilo equessi and (i) equessi Rúmilo would work equally well for "Rúmil's sayings/the sayings of Rúmil". The Quenya genitive properly indicates source or origin (including former possessors), but also covers most relationships between people (like family relationships), as well as the relationship between a ruler and the ruled (people or territory). "Xo Y" or "Y Xo"  may also imply "Y of X" in the sense of Y being a physical part of X, or (if X is a plural word) Y being one of X. Thus Eärendil is said to be elenion ancalima "stars' brightest" = "the brightest one of (/among) stars". The relationship between a place and something located in that place may also be expressed by means of a genitive: Calaciryo míri "the jewels of Calacirya". A genitive can also express "of = about, concerning", as in Quenta Silmarillion "the History of the Silmarils". Furthermore, the preposition ú "without" normally takes the genitive case.

VOCABULARY

quëan "ten"
laman (lamn-) "animal" (the stem-form may also simply be laman-, but we will use lamn- here)
yulma "cup"
limpë "wine" (within Tolkien's mythos, limpë was some special drink of the Elves or of the Valar – but in the Etymologies, entry LIP, Tolkien also provided the parenthetical gloss "wine", and we will use the word in that sense here)
rassë "horn" ("especially on living animal, but also applied to mountains" – Etym., entry RAS)
háno "brother"
Menel "the firmament, sky, heaven, the heavens" (but the Quenya word is singular. It is apparently not used in a religious sense, but refers to the physical heavens only. Cf. Meneltarma "Pillar of Heaven" as the name of the central mountain in Númenor. The word Menel is capitalized and apparently treated as a proper name, hence not requiring any article.)
ulya- "to pour" (transitive past tense ulyanë, intransitive ullë) 
sírë "river"
cilya "cleft, gorge" (also cirya, as in Calacirya "Pass of Light" or "Light-cleft", which name actually appears as Calacilya in some texts – but since cirya also means "ship", we will use cilya here)
anto "mouth" (possibly representing earlier amatō, amto; if so it likely comes from the same root as the verb mat- "to eat")
ú preposition "without" (normally followed by genitive)

NOTE: In the original version of this course, I listed cainen as the word for "ten" and toron (torn-) as the word for "brother". These forms appear in the Etymologies of the 1930s. Material since published indicates that Tolkien eventually rejected cainen "10" in favour of quëan (and quain). He pointed out that cainen would clash with the verb "I lay" (i.e. cainë, pa.t. of caita- "lie", with the ending -n "I"). We cannot know if he definitely rejected toron as the (or a) word for "brother", but the word háno appears for this meaning in a post-LotR source, so we will use it here. Cf. VT47:12, 14, VT48:12.

EXERCISES

1. Translate into English:

A. Hirneltë i firin ohtaro macil.
B. Menelo eleni sílar.
C. Tirnen i nisso hendu.
D. Cenuvaltë Aran Atanion ar ilyë nórion.
E. Coa ú talamion umë anwa coa.
F. I tário úmië hánor merir turë Ambaro lier.
G. I rassi i lamnion nar altë.
H. I rávi quëan lintavë manter i rocco hrávë.

2. Translate into Quenya:

I. The birds of heaven will see ten warriors between the great rivers. YYY
J. The king's thrall poured wine into the biggest of the cups. ("Biggest, greatest" =amalta.  Time to repeat Lesson Five, where we discussed superlatives?)
K. The Elf's brother gathered (together) the ten books about stars. YYY
L. The great river of the land poured into a gorge.
M. A man without a mouth cannot speak.
N. I have seen the greatest of all mountains under the sky. YYY
O. I want to find a land without great animals like lions.
P. You will see an animal without horns (dual: a couple of horns)

LESSON TWELVE
The Possessive-Adjectival case. Verbal or Abstract nouns and how they interact with the Genitive and Possessive cases.

This lesson is mainly devoted to a case that by its function in many ways complements the genitive case. But first of all, let me say that there is no easy answer to the question of what this case should be called. Tolkien listed it in the Plotz Letter, but he did not name it. The case in -o or -on that we discussed in the previous lesson is referred to simply as the "genitive" in several sources. But in WJ:369, Tolkien refers to the forms in -o(n) as "partitive-derivative genitives", whereas the other case that we will now discuss is called a "possessive-adjectival [genitive]". On the previous page, he noted regarding the case with the ending -o(n) that "properly it was used partitively, or to describe the source or origin, not as a 'possessive'" (emphasis added). The context indicates that the other case that he went on to describe, is used as a "possessive". So simply to have some suitable designation of this case, I shall adopt the word possessive as its name. (Another plausible term is "adjectival case", which is also used by some students.)

THE POSSESSIVE
By its function, this case – rather than the case in -o(n) which Tolkien normally terms the "genitive" when discussing Quenya grammar – corresponds much better to the English genitive in -'s. Even so, in certain contexts this case is also best translated using English of-constructions.
	The possessive case is formed by adding the ending -va, e.g. Eldava as the possessive form of Elda. When it is to be added to a noun that ends in a consonant, this ending takes the form -wa instead. When I first wrote this course, we had no actual example to prove this, and I had to rely on various deductions that happily yielded the right result. In 2007, we finally got to see some relevant Tolkien examples: Rómen, the direction "East", becomes rómenwa when the possessive ending is added; likewise andamacil "long sword" becomes andamacilwa (PE17:59, 147).
Originally, the ending -va actually had w in all positions, but between vowels, w became v (e.g. Eldā-wā, Eldawā becoming Eldava). Following a consonant, w remained as it was.
	The Plotz Letter lists no dual forms of the possessive case, but I can't imagine why such forms should not exist. Even so, I won't construct any exercises involving these slightly hypothetical forms, but presumably the simple suffix -va would be used after a dual form in -u – e.g. Alduva as the possessive form of Aldu "Two Trees". The more frequent dual forms in -t would likely have possessive forms in -twa, a dual like ciryat "a couple of ships" becoming ciryatwa (accented on the second-to-last syllable because of the consonant cluster tw: cir-YAT-wa).
	Just like the Plotz Letter lists no dual form of the possessive case, Tolkien mentioned no plural form either – which fact led some investigators to conclude that this case has no plural at all! But other material does indicate that such a form exists (suggesting that we can also feel free to extrapolate a dual form as we tried to do above: the Plotz Letter does not necessarily include everything). In WJ:368 Tolkien indicates that the possessive has a plural form in -iva, combining the simple ending -va with the plural marker -i. Here, this ending is used even if the possessive suffix is added to words that would normally have nominative plurals in -r, like Eldar: The plural possessive is not **Eldarva or **Eldarwa or whatever, but Eldaiva, attested in the phrase lambë Eldaiva "language of the Eldar" (WJ:369). The plural form -iva is said to be an innovation in Quenya, not a form inherited from older stages of Elvish.
When the initial vowel of the ending -iva merges with the last vowel of the noun to produce a diphthong, like ai in Elda + iva = Eldaiva, this diphthong of course receives the stress (eld-AI-va). Most nouns in -ë would at an older stage have behaved in a similar way, a diphthong ei arising; the plural possessive of lassë "leaf" may at one point have been lasseiva (for even older ?lasseiwā, if such a form was ever in use). But the diphthong ei eventually became long í in Quenya, so perhaps the current form was lassíva – with a long í still attracting the stress. In the Plotz Letter, such a long í is observed in the plural form of another case: lassínen as the plural instrumental, to be discussed in a Lesson Sixteen. (The form lassíva is of course not confirmed by Plotz, since no plural forms of the possessive case are there discussed, but the form lassínen seems to confirm the general principle: This form is in all likelihood meant to represent older lasseinen, and then older lasseiva ought to produce Quenya lassíva.)
	It is not quite clear what would happen when the ending -iva is added to a noun already ending in -i, like tári "queen", or a noun with a stem-form in -i, like lómë (lómi-) "night" (SD:415). Possibly the two i's would merge into one long í, so that "of queens" or "of nights" is something like ?táríva, ?lómíva – whereas the singular forms "of a queen" and "of a night" must be táriva, lómiva. (The pronunciation would be markedly different: these singular forms are accented on the first syllable, the third from the end, whereas the plural forms would be accented on the second-to-last syllable because of the long vowel that suddenly turns up there – if the final -i of the noun and the first vowel of the ending -iva do indeed merge into a long í.) But it is also possible that a form like táriva has to do duty for both singular and plural, so that one must rely on the context to distinguish "of a queen" from "of queens". 
	
There are a few more things to say about the formation of the possessive case (see "Various notes" below), but we will now return to its function.
	This is the case you use to describe simple possession, the typical function of the English genitive. In the previous lesson, we have described how the Quenya genitive is rather used to indicate source or origin, not simple ownership. If the Quenya genitive is used to describe the relationship between owners and the things they own, we are dealing with former rather than current ownership. Tolkien nicely explained this by contrasting the genitive and possessive cases, and we can well afford to quote him, recapitulating the function of the genitive in the process:

'Possession' was indicated by the adjectival ending -va... Thus 'Orome's horn' was róma Oroméva (if it remained in his possession)...but [the genitive phrase] róma Oromëo meant 'a horn coming from Orome', e.g. as a gift, in circumstances where the recipient, showing the gift with pride, might say 'this is Orome's horn'. If he said 'this was Orome's horn', he would say Oroméva. Similarly [the genitive phrase] lambe Eldaron would not be used for 'the language of the Eldar' (unless conceivably in a case where the whole language was adopted by another people), which is [rather] expressed...by...lambe Eldaiva. [WJ:368-369]

So the possessive case may indicate simple ownership at the time that is being considered (past or present – whereas origin, or former possession, is indicated by the genitive case). An example from the Silmarillion is Mindon Eldaliéva, the "Tower of the Eldalië [= Elf-people]", meaning simply a tower owned by the Eldalië. (Certainly they had also originated it, but they were still its owners, so a genitive would be less appropriate.) We would also have such phrases as (i) coa i Eldava "the Elf's house"/"the house of the Elf", i parmar i vendíva "the books of the maidens", i míri i Naucoiva "the jewels of the Dwarves". As for this word order, it should be observed that the noun which receives the possessive ending appears as the last word of the possessive phrase in nearly all attested instances: The noun it governs (denoting the thing that is owned) typically comes before it.
In the first version of this course, I wrote: "It may well be that one could reverse the word order and say (for instance) ?i Eldava coa with the same word order as in English: 'the Elf's house'. However, I would avoid this construction until we have it attested in Tolkien's papers." Perhaps we have it attested now. In June 2002, the phrase Amillë Eruva lissëo "Mother of divine grace" turned up in VT44:12, in Tolkien's incomplete Quenya translation of the Litany of Loreto. Literally, this seems to mean "Mother of God's grace". Removing Amillë "Mother", as well as the genitive ending -o here attached to lissë "grace, sweetness", we are left with Eruva lissë for "God's (Eru's) grace". This could be a (currently unique) example of a possessive form preceding rather than following the noun it connects with. However, the opposite order seems to be much more common, and certainly lissë Eruva could have been used here as well. In the exercises below, I consistently let the possessive form follow rather than precede the noun it connects with, using more common word order.
The noun governed by the possessive does not receive the article in most of our attested examples; it is already sufficiently determined: Róma Oroméva is not indefinite "a horn of Oromë's", as if it is first introduced into the story, or it is implied that Oromë had other horns as well. (According to Tolkien, this meaning would be expressed by means of a "loose compound", the words simply being juxtaposed without involving any case endings at all: Oromë róma = "an Oromë horn".) Róma Oroméva is "Oromë's horn" = "the horn of Oromë", róma being determined by Oroméva. But we could certainly slip in an explicit article and say i róma Oroméva without changing the meaning; as demonstrated in the previous lesson, both constructions are equally valid in a phrase involving a genitive noun. An attested example involving the possessive case is the phrase i arani Eldaivë "the Kings of the Eldar" (WJ:369; this primarily means "those kings in a particular assembly who were Elvish", whereas i arani Eldaron with a genitive means "those among the Eldar who were kings", or simply "the kings ruling the Eldar"). The article could probably be omitted without changing the meaning: Arani Eldaivë would still mean "the kings of the Eldar", the possessive form Eldaivë determining arani anyway. (As for why the ending -iva here appears as -ivë, see below; this probably contradicts some evidence from LotR, so we may read Eldaiva instead.)
	The possessive case does not always indicate "possession" in the narrowest sense, but may also describe somebody's relationship to their more-or-less abstract attributes or properties. In such contexts, one can use the genitive as well. Tolkien mentioned that "the splendour (glory) of Oromë" could be expressed in two ways: One may use the possessive-adjectival case and say alcar Oroméva, referring to Oromë's alcar or splendour as a permanent attribute of his. But one could also use the genitive case; the wording alcar Oromëo emphasizes that Oromë is the source of the splendour. This could refer to "his splendour as seen at the moment (proceeding from him) or at some point in a narrative" – focusing on the moment rather than on some permanent state (WJ:369). Cirion's Oath uses the genitive in the phrase Elenna·nórëo alcar "the glory of the land of Elenna". If one used the possessive instead, to produce the wording (i) alcar Elenna·nóreva, it would apparently put the emphasis on the "glory" of Elenna as a permanent attribute of the land. In Middle-earth time, Cirion's Oath was spoken long after Elenna (Númenor) had been destroyed and its "glory" proven to be rather less than permanent, so perhaps this would be inappropriate.
	In our home-made example alcar Elenna·nóreva, we added the possessive ending to a noun that does not denote a sentient being. This is hardly improper, for we have such attested examples as Taurë Huinéva "Forest of Gloom" and Nurtalë Valinóreva "Hiding of Valinor". Where no sentient is involved, the possessive case obviously takes on other shades of meaning; no "ownership" can be involved, since things or substances can't own anything. Cf. for instance the first example of this case that was ever published, in Namárië in LotR. Here we have yuldar...lisse-miruvóreva for "draughts of [the] sweet mead" (in the prose Namárië in RGEO:68, the words are actually directly juxtaposed as yuldar lisse-miruvóreva; in the poetic version in LotR, a number of other words intrude between the two elements of this phrase). 
For decades, this was the sole available example of the case in -va. Here, this case ending implies "(made) of": The yuldar or "draughts" consist of lisse-miruvórë or "sweet mead". Following this example, two nouns like rië "crown" and telpë "silver" can evidently be combined as rië telpeva, "crown of silver". It may be noted that in such a case – the possessive noun denoting a material – the noun it governs is not necessarily be determined by it (not "the crown of silver"). Otherwise, yuldar lisse-miruvóreva would have to mean **"the draughts of sweet mead", but Tolkien did not translate it in this way. – Having only this one example from Namárië to work from, early researchers thought the case in -va was what they called a "compositive" case denoting what something consists of (is composed of). This usage should be noted, but we now know that this is only one of the secondary functions of this case.
	Yet the fact remains that the ending -va is in origin simply adjectival, so this case may easily take on a "descriptive" function. Regarding the genitive case in -o, Tolkien noted that properly it was NOT used "adjectivally to describe qualities" (WJ:368): this is rather the function of the case in -va. The example Taurë Huinéva (Etym, entry PHUY) apparently means "Forest of Gloom"; cf. the nouns taurë "forest" and huinë "deep shadow, gloom". One may almost just as well treat huinéva as a regular adjective and translate Taurë Huinéva as "Gloomy Forest" or "Shadowy Forest". The idea is that the "forest" is characterized by "gloom", so the case in -va can describe what characterizes something or someone. Perhaps the expression Eruva lissë (isolated from a longer phrase, VT44:12) also fits in here: This could be translated "God's grace", but the Litany of Loreto that Tolkien was rendering into Quenya has "divine grace" in this place, and it may well be that Eruva is here best understood as an adjective "divine" – not as a noun "God's". The word Eruva describes the divine quality of the "grace" as a characteristic of this grace.
Such a "characteristic" may also be an abstract or action: In early material (LT1:14) we find the example Mar Vanwa Tyaliéva "Cottage of Lost Play" – the mar or "cottage" being characterized by vanwa tyalië, "lost play" (one must read the earliest Silmarillion manuscripts as reproduced in LT1 and LT2 to understand precisely what this refers to). It should however be noted that the genitive case may also be used in such a context; in the late essay Quendi and Eldar we have Rithil-Anamo for "Doom-ring" or more literally "Ring of Doom" (WJ:401; the Old Quenya word rithil "ring, circle" would probably become risil in Exilic Quenya). Rithil-Anamo does not refer to Sauron's Ring, but to the Máhanaxar, the circle where the Valar passed judgement. The word anamo is not otherwise attested, but must be the genitive of either anama or more likely anan (with stem anam-). It apparently means "doom, judgement, judging" – the activity characterizing or going on in the Circle (Rithil). Perhaps the possessive case could have been used instead (?Rithil Anamáva or ?Rithil Ananwa) without changing the meaning.
	In some instances one may indeed be in doubt which case to use, the genitive or the possessive; sometimes Tolkien's own choice is slightly surprising. He used the possessive in the phrase Noldo-quentasta Ingoldova "Ingoldo's History of the Noldor" (VT39:16) – the Elf Ingoldo being the author of this particular Noldo-quentasta or "Noldo-history". Yet the emphasis is hardly on the fact that Ingoldo owns this "Noldo-history" (unless copyright was a big issue in Valinor). Ingoldo is just the author or originator, and for this meaning we might expect the genitive case to be used instead, since it frequently describes origin or source. Yet there may be certain conflicting concerns here: Since the genitive case may also signify about, concerning (as in Quenta Silmarillion), perhaps Noldo-quentasta Ingoldo with a genitive instead could easily have been misunderstood as "the Noldo-history about Ingoldo".
Anyhow, in one attested example, Tolkien's choice of case certainly amounts to an outright contradiction of what he had written earlier, in the essay Quendi and Eldar: We have quoted his explanation of why it would normally be improper to use the genitive in a phrase like lambë Eldaron "the language of the Eldar" – this would imply "the language coming from the Eldar, later taken over by others"! One had to use the possessive case instead: lambë Eldaiva. Yet Tolkien himself used lambë Quendion for "the language of Elves" in a very late source (PM:395) – and Quendion is unmistakably a plural genitive. The fact that Tolkien here uses another word for "Elf" (Quendë instead of Elda) can hardly make any difference: According to the system set out in Quendi and Eldar, we would expect lambë Quendíva, the possessive case being used of current ownership. Perhaps we can resolve the contradiction in "internal" terms, appealing to a linguistic development within the mythos: Tolkien noted that there was an increasing tendency to prefer the genitive case, people sometimes using it instead of the possessive case (WJ:369). So in "late usage" it would perhaps be natural to say lambë Quendion rather than lambë Quendíva – the former distinctions fading away. If one is in doubt which case to use, the genitive or the possessive, it is probably best to pick the former.

VARIOUS NOTES
filling in some details
NOTE #1: Vowel-lengthening in the syllable preceding the case ending: The observant student will have noted that sometimes, the last vowel of a noun is lengthened when the ending -va is added. For instance, Eldalië + va produces Eldaliéva with a long é (which must then receive the stress, according to the normal rules). Oroméva and tyaliéva as the possessive forms of the nouns Oromë and tyalië are other examples. Notice that the words Eldalië, Oromë, tyalië all end in two short syllables (containing neither consonant clusters, diphthongs or long vowels). If the ending -va were added after them and no further changes were made, the extra syllable provided by this ending would make the stress move to what is now the third syllable from the end (cf. the stress rules set out in Lesson One). This would result in the rather awkward pronunciations **orOMeva, **eldaLIeva, **tyaLIeva. So where the ending -va is added to a noun ending in two short syllables, and there is no final consonant, the vowel of the last of these syllables is apparently lengthened to make sure that it will receive the stress: oroMÉva, eldaliÉva, tyaliÉva. But if the noun ends in a consonant, there is never any need to lengthen the vowel, for where we are dealing with a noun of such a shape, the suffixing of the case ending (probably appearing as -wa) will result in a consonant cluster which will make the stress move to the vowel before the new cluster anyhow. For instance: While a name like Menelmacar (the Quenya name of Orion) is naturally accented on the third syllable from the end because it ends in two short syllables, its possessive form Menelmacarwa would be accented on -arw- because of the cluster rw here arising. This cluster makes what is now the second-to-last syllable long, and therefore it receives the stress.
In the original version of this course, I wrote: "It is unclear whether the system just sketched – the final vowel of a noun ending in two short syllables being lengthened before the ending -va – would still be valid in the case of a word that only consists of these two short syllables." As I also wrote, my gut feeling was that in such a case, there would be no lengthening. This has now been confirmed by the example Eruva as the possessive form of Eru (VT44:12, published in June 2002). Though Eru ends in two short syllables, we do not see **Erúva in the possessive, for the two short syllables of Eru are also the entire word. The lengthening rule only applies to words of more than two syllables.
Huinéva (instead of **huineva) as the possessive form of huinë "shadow, gloom" is however a puzzling example. Here we do see lengthening of the final -ë to -é-. For a while I actually thought final -ë is always lengthened before the ending -va, but the Plotz Letter indicates that the possessive form of lassë "leaf" is lasseva (not **lasséva). If the ui of huinë is counted as two syllables (u-i), not as a diphthong, this example would conform with the rule set out above: hu-i-në would have its final vowel lengthened when -va is added, producing huinéva. But since Tolkien explicitly stated that Quenya ui is a diphthong – hence pronounced as one long syllable and not as two short ones – this explanation is not satisfactory. Yet ui is supposed to be a diphthong in Sindarin as well, but in one Sindarin poem, ui occurs where the poetic meter demands two syllables. Perhaps ui, although a diphthong, is somehow "overlong" and sometimes counts as two syllables, even though it is perceived as one syllable by the ear. Bottom line is, if the case ending -va is to be added to a noun with ui in its second-to-last syllable, the vowel in the final syllable is apparently lengthened before -va is suffixed. So the possessive form of nouns like cuilë "life" or tuima "sprout" should evidently be cuiléva, tuimáva.
As for the genitive ending -o, there is no similar lengthening when the ending is to be added to a noun ending in two short syllables: The genitive form of Oromë is attested as Oromëo, not **Oroméo (contrast possessive Oroméva). The form Oromëo must be accented on -rom-. It seems likely, then, that nothing special happens when -o is added to a word like huinë either (genitive probably huinëo, hardly ?huinéo). However, I should like to see an attested example of what happens when the ending -o is added to a noun ending in two short vowels in hiatus – most frequently -ië, as in Valië "female Vala". ?Valiëo would have to be accented on i, which sounds rather awkward; the same goes for the plural form ?Valieron. I strongly suspect that in such a case, the vowel in the syllable before the genitive ending would be lengthened, thus attracting the stress: Valiéo, Valiéron. But once again, there is no way of being certain; we must await further publications. 
NOTE #2: Special stem-forms of nouns: Where a noun has a special stem-form, it would always appear when the genitive ending -o is added. The genitive of nís (niss-) "woman" or talan (talam-) "floor" would be nisso "woman's" and talamo "floor's". Yet the ending -va or -wa for possessive may sometimes produce more complex results. Adding -wa to a noun like talan, talam- would probably result in talanwa, not **talamwa, since mw regularly becomes nw in Quenya. Suffixing -wa to filit (filic-) "bird" would result in filicwa all right, but this we must spell filiqua according to the normal conventions. I am not quite sure what the possessive form of nís (niss-) "woman" should be. **Nisswa is certainly not a possible Quenya word; perhaps we would see something like nisseva, an extra e turning up before the ending to break up the impossible consonant cluster (and following a vowel, we would regularly see -va instead of -wa). – The "stem-form" of some nouns is simply a contraction, e.g. fern- as the stem of feren "beech-tree". Surely the genitive would be ferno, but the possessive may well be ferenwa with no contraction, since other examples indicate that such contraction does not occur before a consonant cluster (**fernwa is not a possible Quenya word). Of course we could slip in an e here as well, producing ?ferneva, but I would certainly put my money on ferenwa.
NOTE #3: A Tolkienian rule we can afford to ignore (!): In WJ:407, Tolkien states that the case derived by adding -va never lost its strong adjectival connotations; he actually says that it "was and remained an adjective". Compare Eruva being used in the sense "divine" rather than "God's" in Tolkien's Quenya Litany of Loreto. As we remember from Lesson Four, adjectives in -a have plural forms in -ë (for archaic -ai). According to what Tolkien says in WJ:407, a possessive noun (with ending -va) that governs a plural word would agree with it in number just like any other adjective, the ending -va turning into -vë. For this reason, he used i arani Eldaivë for "the Kings of the Eldar" in WJ:369: Eldaiva "of the Eldar" becomes Eldaivë (archaic Eldaivai) to agree in number with the plural noun it is dependent on, namely arani "kings".
However, this may be one of the cases of Tolkien revising Elvish grammar without noticing that his new ideas contradicted something he had already published. For in Namárië in LotR, we have yuldar...lisse-miruvóreva for "draughts of sweet mead", and Tolkien later confirmed this construction in his comments on Namárië in The Road Goes Ever On. Since yuldar "draughts" is a plural word, lisse-miruvóreva should have been lisse-miruvórevë according to the system Tolkien set out in WJ:407. As I said, the likeliest "external" explanation is simply that Tolkien introduced a new rule without noticing that he had already published something that contradicted it. In "internal" terms, we may perhaps assume that the possessive form was still perceived as a kind of derived adjective in the older period, and therefore it also agreed in number like regular adjectives. But as the Ages went by in Middle-earth, the forms derived by means of the ending -va came to be perceived more strictly as a noun case only, and by the late Third Age when Galadriel composed her Lament, the adjective-style agreement in number had been abandoned. I do not use it in the exercises I have made for this course.

VERBAL OR ABSTRACT NOUNS
and how they interact with the genitive and possessive cases
We have earlier defined nouns as words denoting things, whereas verbs are words that denote actions – but we have also hinted that linguists would find such definitions rather simplistic. Some nouns do denote actions, and they are appropriately called verbal nouns. Since such nouns may interact with the genitive and possessive cases in a way that should be noted, this is a good place to introduce them.
	A verbal noun is derived from the stem of a verb; in English, the relevant ending is -ing. (This is also the ending used to derive active participles, but they are adjectives, not nouns; the forms merely happen to coincide in English.) Singing is the verbal noun corresponding to the verb sing; in other words, singing is the action you perform when you sing.
	In Quenya, the stems of some primary verbs are the source of abstract formations in -më; some of them seem to have been verbal nouns in origin. For instance, whereas the verb "to love" is mel-, the noun "love" (or "loving") is melmë. Some of these may take on more specialized meanings. Carmë is used for "art" (UT:439), though this is basically simply a kind of verbal noun derived from the verb car- "make, do" – hence literally "making". (See below regarding oiencarmë.)
	Primary verbs may also receive the ending -ië; the verb tyal- "to play" corresponds to the abstract formation tyalië "play, playing" (as noun; cf. the Mar Vanwa Tyaliéva or "Cottage of Lost Play" mentioned above). Added to an A-stem verb, the ending -ië makes the final -a drop out; cf. naina- "to lament" producing the abstract noun nainië "a lament(ing)". 
Yet another frequent formation is to lengthen the stem-vowel of a primary verb and add the ending -ë. The verb ser- "rest" corresponds to the abstract noun sérë "rest, repose, peace". Very often, the nouns so derived have taken on a somewhat more concrete meaning. From the verb sir- "to flow" we have sírë, which would basically refer to a "flowing", but this noun is used = "river". The noun nútë connects with the verb nut- "to tie", but the noun has developed beyond the full abstract "tying, binding" and has come to signify "knot" instead. From lir- "to sing, chant" we have lírë, used for "song" rather than just "singing, chanting". Yet the underlying idea of a verbal noun is often discernible still.
The stems of some A-stem verbs, especially in -ta, can also be used as abstract nouns with no additions. Vanta- is the verb "to walk", but vanta is also used as an abstract: "a walk" (that is, "walking" considered as a noun). Likewise, the verbs lanta- "to fall" corresponds to the noun lanta "a fall(ing)". However, the noun may also be lantë, as in the name of the song Noldolantë or "Fall of the Noldor" mentioned in the Silmarillion. In Quenya, most abstract nouns indeed end in the vowel -ë, either alone or as part of a longer ending.
One such ending is -lë, which seems to one of the most versatile Quenya abstract suffixes. It may be that it can in principle be added to any A-stem verb, and the resulting word is basically a verbal noun. The verb laita- "to bless/praise" occurs in LotR (in the Cormallen Praise), and the corresponding abstract noun laitalë "praise" or "praising" occurs in UT:166, 436 (where reference is made to the Erulaitalë or "Praise of Eru", a Númenórean festival). In earlier lessons we have used the verb nurta- "to hide", which is actually only attested as a verbal noun nurtalë "hiding" (see below concerning the phrase Nurtalë Valinóreva "Hiding of Valinor"). 
	Then let us return to the genitive and possessive cases. If you combine a verbal noun (or an abstract formation that still clearly connects with a verb) with a noun in the genitive case, it suggests that this noun is the "subject" of the corresponding verb. An attested example is Altariello nainië for "Galadriel's lament" (RGEO:66; the Quenya form of Galadriel's name is Altariel with stem Altariell-). The genitive Altariello "Galadriel's" governing the abstract noun nainië "lament, lamenting" indicates that Galadriel is the one who does the lamenting: subject genitive. Perhaps the phrase i equessi Rúmilo "the sayings of Rúmil" (WJ:398) may also be analyzed in such a way: Rúmil is the subject who originally "said" the "sayings". An obvious case is provided by the phrase Oiencarmë Eruo "the One's [Eru's, God's] perpetual production" (MR:471). Eru is the one who does the "perpetual production" (oi-en-carmë = probably "ever-re-making"), and this is indicated by the genitive form Eruo: subject genitive yet again.
Way back in Lesson Two, I pointed out the error contained in the title of the fanzine Parma Eldalamberon; it should have been Parma Eldalambion instead. I must now take affair with the title of another (good!) Tolkien-linguistic journal, Tyalië Tyelelliéva. This was meant to signify "Play of the Tyelellië" (a folk of little Elves). But since the Tyelellië are the subject of the abstract noun "play" (the ones who do the playing), it would probably have been better to use the genitive case here: Tyalië Tyelelliëo.
	So far subject genitive; what about object genitive? This kind of genitive is usually replaced by an of-construction in English: "the discovery of America" = the discovery which America was the object of. Subject and object genitive can even be combined in a phrase like "Columbus' discovery of America" (Columbus is the subject who does the discovery, America is the object that is discovered).
Our one-and-only attested example of a Quenya object genitive seems to indicate that for this meaning, Quenya uses the case in -va. This one example is found in the Silmarillion, near the end of Chapter 11: Nurtalë Valinóreva, the "Hiding of Valinor" (Valinóreva is formed from Valinórë, an older variant of the name normally shortened as Valinor). The point is that the Valar hid Valinor, so Valinor is the object of the nurtalë or "hiding". If one used the genitive case instead, saying Nurtalë Valinórëo, it might imply that this is a subject genitive – Valinor doing the hiding instead of being its object. This would make little sense, since Valinor is not a person that can "hide" anything. Conversely, oiencarmë Eruo cannot be understood as "perpetual production of the One" even if some kind of sense could be made of this, for if Eru were the grammatical object that is produced, we would evidently see oiencarmë Eruva instead.
	Probably, the o-case could be used for subject genitive and the va-case for object genitive within the same phrase; if so it would probably be best to let the former genitive precede the verbal noun. Nurtalë Valinóreva or "Hiding of Valinor" could then be expanded to Valaron nurtalë Valinóreva, "the Valar's hiding of Valinor". Or, to use a wholly home-made example:

	Eruo melmë Ataniva = "God's love of Men"

and conversely:

	Atanion melmë Eruva = "Men's love of God"

Summary of Lesson Twelve: The possessive (or adjectival) case is formed by adding the ending -va (probably -wa after nouns ending in a consonant), in the plural -iva. (There is no explicit information about dual forms; presumably the ending -va can be added to nouns with dual forms in -u, whereas the case ending might appear as -wa when added to a dual form in -t.) If the ending -va is to be added to a noun of at least three syllables that ends in a vowel, and the two last syllables are short, then the final vowel is lengthened before the case ending is added so as to attract the stress: The possessive form of Oromë is therefore Oroméva (not **Oromeva). For some reason, such lengthening also happens if the diphthong ui occurs in the second-to-last syllable of the noun; the possessive form of huinë "gloom" is therefore huinéva. – A possessive phrase like "X Yva" may mean "Y's X" or "X of Y" referring to simple ownership, e.g. lambë Eldaiva "the language of the Elves" or coa i Eldava "the Elf's house". The pattern "X Yva" may also refer to a permanent attribute (e.g. alcar Oroméva "the glory of Oromë"), or to the prevalent characteristic of a place (e.g. Taurë Huinéva "Forest of Gloom"). Another use of this case is expressing "X that consists of Y" (e.g. yuldar lisse-miruvóreva "draughts of sweet mead"). – Verbal nouns, or abstract nouns derived from verbs, denote an action viewed as a "thing" or process. Such nouns may be derived in a variety of ways; relevant endings include -më, -lë, -ië and -ë. Notice especially the ending -lë, which (it seems) may in principle be added to any A-stem verb, as when the verb linda- "to sing" produces lindalë "singing, music". When dependent on a verbal noun or an abstract clearly associated with some verb, the genitive case takes on the meaning of a subject genitive (as in Altariello nainië "Galadriel's lament"), whereas the possessive case is used for object genitive (Nurtalë Valinóreva "Hiding of Valinor").  

VOCABULARY

minquë "eleven"
varya- "to protect"
alya "rich"
nésa "sister" (In the first version of this course I used the word seler, sell- given in the Etymologies, but now the word nésa has turned up in a post-LotR source, and we will use it here – though of course, no one can assert that seler is definitely "obsolete" as a word for sister.)
malta "gold" (so according to Appendix E of LotR; the Etymologies, entry SMAL, gives malda instead – but post-LotR sources seem to indirectly confirm that malta was Tolkien's final decision, as when PM:366 cites the Eldarin root yielding words for "gold" as MALAT.)
nat "thing" YYY forandre engwë til nat overalt!!!
muilë "secrecy" (including one of the abstract endings mentioned above, -lë; in this case it is added directly to the root MUY, here manifesting as mui-. Apparently this word is related to Sindarin muil as in one place-name occurring in LotR: Emyn Muil, possibly meaning something like Hills of Secrecy or Hidden Hills).
sérë "peace" (in origin an abstract formation based on the verb ser- "to rest", derived from the same root SED which also produces the name of Estë [from Esdē /Ezdē], the Valië or "goddess" of rest and sleep)
ramba "wall"
ondo "stone" (as material, though ondo is also used = "a rock"; the Sindarin equivalent gon, gond occurs in the names Gondor and Gondolin, the latter of which is adapted from Quenya Ondolindë)
osto "city" (according to late sources also used = "fortress", but we will use it in the sense of "city" here; the word seems to refer primarily to a fortified city, so there may not be much of a distinction anyway)
mornië "darkness" (cf. morë "black"; the word mornië is actually an abstract formation based on another adjective derived from the same primitive root MOR, namely morna = "dark")

EXERCISES

These exercises involve both the genitive case and the possessive/adjectival case. Make sure to pick the right case in Exercises I-P (though sometimes, either case will do). 

1. Translate into English:

A. I limpë Eldaron vs. i limpë Eldaiva (and since both phrases may have the same English translation, explain what the difference is)
B. Haryalyë yulma maltava.
C. I rocco i Eldava alantië mir i núra cilya.
D. Neri séreva úvar ohtari.
E. Altë rambar ondova nurtaner i coar i amalyë neriva quëan i osto. 
F. I coa nésava i arano ná carnë.
G. Er i mólion amápië i macil i aranwa.
H. I vendëo háno hirnë ilyë i harmar i Naucoiva minquë imbi i rassi canta i ninqui orontion.

2. Translate into Quenya:

I. Rivers of wine poured into the man's mouth.
J. The boys' sister [/the sister of the boys] gathered (together) the things of the boys and went into the house of the queen. YYY 
K. The secrecy of the women protected a great treasure of gold.
L. The eleven warriors could not protect the peace of the city, for a great darkness fell.
M. They will go through a land of great trees and many rocks, for they want to see the city of the mighty warrior.
N. A wall of secrecy protected the hidden gold of the city, and I did not find it.
O. The land of the Elves is a land of many beautiful things; a land without Elves is a land of darkness, for the Men (Atani) of the land do not hear the rich language of the Elves.
P. The king's sister's gathering of books about Elves. (To make an abstract noun "gathering", try adding the ending -lë "-ing" to the verb hosta- "to gather".)

LESSON THIRTEEN
The Dative case. The Gerund. The pronominal endings for “we”: -lmë, -lvë, -mmë and -ngwë. An indefinite pronoun.

THE DATIVE CASE
Back in Lesson Five, we introduced the concept of grammatical objects, the "target" of the verbal action performed by the subject: I Elda máta massa = "the Elf is eating bread", i Nauco hirnë harma = "the Dwarf found a treasure".
So far in this course, all the objects that we have concerned ourselves with have been, more precisely, direct objects. These are objects directly affected by the verbal action. In archaic Quenya, such objects had their own grammatical case, the accusative – but this case no longer had any distinct forms in Third Age Quenya. But there are also indirect objects, to which Quenya grammar likewise assigns special case forms. The case marking indirect objects, the dative, was still alive and well in Third Age Quenya. But before discussing how dative forms are constructed, let us have a closer look on indirect objects.
An indirect object is, logically, an object indirectly affected by the verbal action of the sentence. Thus the indirect object is often the beneficiary of the verbal action (though it may also denote a party that is adversely affected by this action). The archetypal example involves the verb "to give", which must logically entail three parties: the subject that does the giving, the direct object which is the thing that is given, plus the indirect object that is the recipient of the gift and thus the beneficiary of the verbal action: 

The man [subject] gave the boy [indirect object] a book [direct object].

Modern English (unlike, say, German) has no distinct dative case, so in the English example above, the noun "boy" receives no extra inflectional elements to explicitly mark it as the indirect object of the sentence. In English, indirect objects may be indicated simply by word order; the indirect object is then jammed into the sentence in front of the direct object, just like "the boy" appears before "a book" in our example above. But just like English often uses a phrase involving the preposition "of" instead of the genitive case, the absence of a distinct dative case is frequently compensated for by means of prepositional circumlocutions: The two prepositions most often used to simulate the function of the dative case are "to" and "for". So instead of saying "the man gave the boy a book" (word order alone identifying "the boy" as the indirect object), one might say "the man gave a book to the boy". Examples with "for" could be, say, "we did it for the children", or "the men work for the queen". 
In Quenya, "the boy", "the children" and "the queen" of these examples would be considered indirect objects – the parties indirectly affected by the verbal action – and the corresponding nouns would be inflected for the dative case. There would be no need to maintain a specific word order, or to use prepositions like "to" or "for". Cf. the question occurring in the middle of Namárië, where the pronoun ni "I" (related to the pronominal ending -n or -nyë of similar meaning) appears in the dative case:

Sí man i yulma nin enquantuva? "Now who will refill the cup for me?"

The element here translated "for" is not a separate word in Quenya; it is simply the final -n of nin – which -n is the Quenya dative ending. Hence nin = "I-for", or in correct English: "for me". In other contexts it could also have been translated "to me" or (where in English the indirect object is identified by word order alone) simply "me": The verb "to give" being anta-, the Quenya equivalent of "you will give me a book" would in all likelihood go something like antuvalyë nin parma. The dative pronoun nin turns up in the last line of Fíriel's Song, as part of a sentence which Tolkien translated "what will the Father...give me...?" (LR:72). Of course, one might also translate "...give to me".
	The Plotz Letter confirms that the ending -n for dative is not only applicable to pronouns; it can also be attached to common nouns. (Plotz lists ciryan as the dative form of cirya "ship" and points to lassen as the dative form of lassë "leaf".) Thus we can build sentences like carnelyes i Naucon "you did it for the Dwarf" or i nér antuva i parma Eldan "the man will give the book to an Elf". In English, the latter sentence could also be translated "the man will give an Elf the book", word order alone indicating that "an Elf" is to be understood as the indirect object of the English sentence. In Quenya, word order would be much freer (the main advantage of a highly inflected language!), the case ending indicating that the noun in question is the indirect object no matter where the noun occurs in the sentence. This enables the speaker to move the indirect object around to express subtle nuances of emphasis. For instance, we may probably front the indirect object to put special focus on it: Eldan i nér antuva i parma, meaning something like "it is to an Elf [not to a Dwarf, etc.] the man will give the book". Whether the direct or the indirect object comes first may not be very material; while i nér antuva i parma Eldan means "the man will give the book to an Elf", i nér antuva Eldan i parma may be translated "the man will give an Elf the book".
	In the plural, dative forms end in -in. Nouns with nominative plurals in -i would in effect simply add the dative ending -n; the Plotz Letter points to lassin as the dative form of lassi "leaves". The dative plural of a word like laman (lamn-) "animal" would therefore be lamnin = "to animals" or "for animals". The ending -in is however also added to nouns that would have nominative plurals in -r; the plural marker -r does not appear in dative forms. From the first line of Fíriel's Song (translated "the Father made the World for Elves"), we know what the plural dative of Elda would be: Eldain. It should be noted that the ending -in merges with the last vowel of the noun to form a diphthong, like ai in this case. Fíriel's Song also provides the dative plural of "Mortals": Fírimoin (nominative plural Fírimor, LR:245; Tolkien later came to prefer the form Fírimar, as in the published Silmarillion, chapter 12. The dative plural would then become Fírimain, of course.)
	In the previous lesson I pointed out that "it is not quite clear what would happen when the [plural possessive-adjectival] ending -iva is added to a noun already ending in -i, like tári 'queen', or a noun with a stem-form in -i, like lómë (lómi-) 'night' (SD:415)". The same problem arises in the case of the plural dative forms. The dative singular "to/for a queen" would presumably be tárin, but when trying to derive a plural dative by adding -in to tári, we are probably left with tárin once again (the final -i or the noun and the initial i- of the ending simply merging). Conceivably the two vowels might merge into a long i, producing tárín as the word for "to/for queens", but this seems a somewhat unlikely word: Quenya rarely has a long vowel in a final unaccented syllable (though there is the word palantír). It may well be that tárin has to do duty for both singular and plural, so that one must rely on the context to find out which number is meant. 
	The dual dative ending is given as -nt in the Plotz Letter, the dual dative form of cirya "ship" being listed as ciryant – which would mean something like "for a couple of ships". Of course, this ending -nt simply combines the dative ending -n with the dual ending -t. Already in Lesson One I briefly mentioned that this -nt seems to be the sole example of a final consonant cluster being allowed in LotR-style Quenya. – It may be that only nouns with nominative dual forms in -t would have dative dual forms in -nt; in the case of nouns with dual forms in -u, it may well be that the simplest dative ending -n would be employed. Once again using Aldu "Two Trees" as our example, the dative form should perhaps not be Aldunt, but rather Aldun (or possibly Alduen; see below concerning Ar-Veruen). We lack examples either way, though.

In some instances, a sentence may include an indirect object (in Quenya, a dative object) even though the sentence contains no direct object. In the Quenya equivalent of "the men work for the king", the English preposition "for" would be represented by the case ending -n added to aran (probably producing aranen, a helping vowel -e- intruding before the ending). There is at least one attested example of a sentence having a dative object, but no direct object: Tolkien in his Quenya version of the Pater Noster used a dative form of the pronoun "we, us" when rendering the phrase "...those who trespass against us". (This, by the way, is an example of the dative case being used to identify a party adversely affected by the verbal action: The context must decide whether the dative form should be translated "against us" or "for us". Grammatically speaking, both interpretations would be equally valid, but "those who trespass for us" would not make sense in this particular context.) The verb "to trespass" or "to sin" can have no direct object, but obviously some party may be indirectly affected by the trespassing or sinning, so there can be an indirect object – aptly presented as a dative object in Quenya. 
	Dative forms may also turn up in sentences having no subject, a grammatical phenomenon virtually unheard of in modern English. Yet such sentences may be compared to phrases like "it seems to me that...", where the formal subject "it" is actually nothing but a grammatical dummy with no real content: In informal speech it may even be omitted, "seems to me that...", and the meaning is quite intact. Such English wordings are comparable to Quenya phrases like orë nin caritas, literally "[it] impels for me to do it", expressing the meaning that in English might be worded something like "I would like [or, feel moved] to do so" (VT41:13). Notice that the sentence orë nin caritas has no subject, but it does have a dative object: nin "to me, for me". Or- or ora- "impel, urge" is one of the Quenya impersonal verbs which invite such constructions; we will return to these verbs in a later lesson.
	Dative forms may even turn up in phrases where no verb occurs at all. Tolkien's (incomplete) translation of the Gloria Patri goes, in part: Alcar i ataren ar i yondon ar i airefëan = "glory [be] to the Father and to the Son and to the Holy Spirit" (VT43:36). Notice the dative ending -n appended to atar "father", yondo "son" and airefëa "holy spirit". (In the form ataren a connecting vowel -e- is inserted before the ending -n, since **atarn would not be a possible Quenya word.)

An earlier application of the case ending -n: In Tolkien's long evolution of Quenya, -n was not always the dative ending. From the perspective of the LotR scenario, one of the few things that are "wrong" with the Quenya of the Etymologies (written in the mid-thirties) is that -n is here the genitive ending instead. For instance, the entry LEP lists the names of various Valinorean weekdays, including Ar Manwen = Day of Manwë, or Ar Ulmon = Day of Ulmo (cf. the noun ar(ë) "day" – but later, Tolkien changed the word for "day" to aurë or ré, as indicated by the LotR appendices).
This use of the ending -n is also found in a phrase written in the mid-forties, reproduced in SD:303: Quenta Eldalien, "History of the Elves [Eldalië, Elf-people]". In draft versions of the poem that was to become Namárië, Tolkien used Vardan as the genitive "Varda's" (see for instance the early version reproduced in TI:284-285). In one of the later manuscripts, Tolkien still wrote Vardan, but then he crossed it out and replaced it with Vardo. This may seem to pinpoint the moment when Tolkien changed the genitive ending from -n to -o. Actually the genitive ending -o turns up in earlier sources as well; a "Qenya" poem of the early thirties already has ciryo (spelt kiryo) as the genitive of cirya "ship" (langon veakiryo "the throat of the sea-ship", MC:216). As for the dative case, the "Qenya" of the pre-LotR composition Fíriel's Song already uses -n (pl. -in) as the dative ending, as is evident from some examples quoted above. Later, -n for a while reverted to being the genitive ending, as the Namárië drafts seem to indicate. It appears, then, that Tolkien changed his mind back and forth over the decades – but the final resolution, as reflected in LotR and as codified in the Plotz Letter, was that -o is to be the genitive ending, while -n is the dative ending.
	Some of the obsolete genitives from the Etymologies are still interesting as forms. In the entry AY, the noun ailin "pool, lake" is said to have the "g.sg." (genitive singular) ailinen. Because of Tolkien's later revisions, the form ailinen must rather be understood as a dative singular in LotR-style Quenya – meaning "for a lake" instead of genitive "of a lake". The example ailinen is interesting insofar as it shows us what happens if the case ending -n (no matter what case it is assigned to!) is added to a noun ending in a consonant, like ailin. Since **ailinn is not a possible Quenya word, an e is inserted before the ending, producing ailinen. Though the ending -n had its meaning redefined, the principle of inserting this helping vowel whenever it is required is still valid. Such indirect evidence from obsolete genitive forms was all we had when I first wrote this course, but material published in 2002 confirmed this assumption: Here ataren appears as the dative form of atar "father" (VT43:36). This is a genuine dative form from post-LotR Quenya, so Tolkien was still using the same connecting vowel even after he had changed the meaning of the case ending -n.
If the noun has a special stem-form – the final consonant turning into another consonant or a consonant cluster when endings are to be added – such changes occur before this extra -e- as well: In the entry LIN2 in the Etymologies, we learn that Laurelin (Laurelind-), the name of the Golden Tree of Valinor, has the "g.sg." Laurelinden. In LotR-style Quenya, this would be the dative singular instead, but the form as such is presumably valid still. The same goes for lissen as a form of lis (liss-) "honey"; see the entry LIS. We may then assume that a noun like nís (niss-) "woman" would be treated in a similar fashion: dative nissen.
One of the "genitive" forms of the Etymologies may even throw some light upon what the later dative of dual forms in -u should look like. One Valinorean weekday listed in the entries BES and LEP is Arveruen or Ar-Veruen – the "Day of the Spouses", referring to the Vala couple Aulë and Yavanna. Here we have veruen as the genitive of the dual form veru "spouses, married pair". It should be noticed that the helping vowel -e- is employed here as well (somewhat surprisingly: one might have thought that **verun would be an acceptable form). If this genitive veruen would still be a valid form after Tolkien redefined the ending -n so that veruen is a dative form in LotR-style Quenya, it would indicate that nouns with nominative dual forms in -u should have dative forms in -uen. The dative of Aldu "Two Trees" would then be neither Aldunt nor Aldun, but rather Alduen. But I hardly need to say that we are not on solid ground here, and I will not construct any exercises based on such hypotheses.

THE GERUND
Most of the time, nouns and verbs are distinct parts of speech. There are, of course, the verbal nouns discussed in the previous lesson, but they are unquestionably genuine nouns – abstract formations denoting verbal actions considered as "things". But verbs have one form, the gerund, which almost defies the dichotomy of noun vs. verb. One might say that a gerund is a verb masquerading as a noun.
	In Cirion's Oath occurs the word enyalien, literally meaning "for recalling" (that is, "in order to remember"). The prefix en- means "re-", and the final -n is the case ending discussed above, the dative marker corresponding to the English preposition "for". Stripping away these extra elements, we are left with -yalie-, yalië. In his notes on Cirion's Oath, as reproduced in UT:317, Tolkien makes it clear that yalië is an "infinitive (or gerundial) form" of a verb yal-, meaning to call or to summon. Thus we can isolate -ië as a grammatical ending used to derive 'infinitive or gerundial' forms.
	Earlier in this course, we have discussed another kind of infinitive, which is simply the stem of the verb (with -ë added, in the case of primary verbs). An attested example is the sentence polin quetë, "I can speak" (VT41:6), with quetë as the infinitive form of the verb quet- "speak". Since Tolkien clearly identifies -ië as an infinitive ending in UT:317, it may be that polin quetië would have be equally possible (more on this below). In her tutorial Basic Quenya, written before the example polin quetë became available, Nancy Martsch uses -ië as the Quenya infinitival ending throughout. This may not necessarily be wrong; Tolkien definitely imagined an old Elvish infinitive in -ie. In the Etymologies, entry NAR2, the Old Noldorin word trenarie "to recount" is explicitly called an "inf." form ("Old Noldorin" being the language Tolkien might later have referred to as Old Sindarin, after he revised his linguistic mythos in the early fifties). However, I think that typically, the Quenya verb forms derived by means of the suffix -ië are best termed gerunds (rather than infinitives).
	In English, gerunds are derived by means of the ending -ing, e.g. "finding" vs. the verb "to find". Now a form like "finding" can of course also be an abstract noun (synonymous with "discovery") as well as an adjectival participle (as in "the man finding the treasure"). But what we are interested in here, is rather the word "finding" as it appears in a sentence like "finding the treasure was wonderful". Here, "finding" in a way behaves like a noun, for it is the subject of the sentence. But we can tell that in some sense, "finding" is still a verb, for it has not lost one of the unique characteristics of a verb: the ability to take an object. In the phrase "finding the treasure", "the treasure" is the object of "finding". If "finding" had here been an abstract noun, one would have to use an "of"-construction to bring in the thing which is found: "the finding (= discovery) of the treasure". Cf. our discussion of the Quenya object genitive (as in Nurtalë Valinóreva, "Hiding of Valinor") in the previous lesson.
Since we are able to tell that in the sentence "finding the treasure was wonderful", the word "finding" is not a verbal noun, we can conclude that it is actually a gerund. A gerund is a form of the verb which can function as a noun, with much the same meaning as a genuine verbal noun. However, a gerund is still capable of taking an object, and this goes for Quenya gerunds as well: Regarding the Quenya gerundial form in -ië which Tolkien used in Cirion's Oath, he noted that it was "governing a direct object" (UT:317).
NOTE: In Quenya as in English, gerunds and abstract nouns cannot always be clearly distinguished. Just like the English ending -ing is used to derive both gerunds and verbal nouns, the Quenya ending -ië may also be used to derive abstracts, e.g. tyalië "play" (as noun) from the verb tyal- "to play". Indeed -ië is also used as a general abstract ending, much like English "-ness", cf. for instance mornië "darkness".
	As usual, there is an extreme scarcity of attested examples. But we must assume that in Quenya as in English, gerunds may often function as the subjects of sentences, perhaps something like this:

	Hirië harma caruva nér alya "finding a treasure will make a man rich"
	Tirië i aiwi anta i vendin alta alassë "watching the birds gives the maidens [vendin, dative] great joy"

In these examples we have equipped the gerunds with objects (harma and i aiwi), but a gerund could certainly function as subject without any further additions, for instance like this: Matië ná i analta alassë ilyë tiucë Naucoron, "eating is the greatest joy of all fat Dwarves".
Presumably Quenya gerunds can also function as the object of a sentence, comparable to such English constructions as "I love fishing". The gerund functioning as object may in turn govern its own object: A sentence like "I love watching the birds" may perhaps be rendered into Quenya as melin tirië i aiwi ("watching" being the object of the phrase "I love", and "the birds" in turn being the object of the gerund "watching"). Perhaps the latter might also be expressed as "I love to watch the birds" = melin tirë i aiwi (?), using an infinitive instead of a gerund. Gerunds and infinitives may well be interchangeable in many contexts, in Quenya as in English. 
Indeed our terminology may be stricter than the one Tolkien himself used, if we reserve the term infinitive for forms like tirë "to watch" and insist on calling tirië "watching" a gerund only: In UT:317, quoted above, Tolkien himself refers to the forms in -ië as both "infinitival" and "gerundial". As we mentioned above, in the "Old Noldorin" of the Etymologies one form in -ie is explicitly identified as an infinitive. The post-LotR example polin quetë "I can speak" demonstrates that -ië at least cannot be a universal infinitive ending. Would polin quetië be a possible wording, or would this sound about as weird as "I can speaking" in English? And what about "I want to find a treasure"? Would merin hirië harma be OK, or would the Eldar find this wording as awkward as "I want finding a treasure" in English? It may be safer to use the simplest infinitive, hirë, in such a context. 
When a verbal action is the subject or object of a sentence, one may to some extent choose between the infinitives and gerunds in English: "To err is human, to forgive is divine" = "Erring is human, forgiving is divine". Especially when a verbal action functions as subject, I think it would be safer to use the gerund (the form in -ië) in Quenya. But since we have no actual examples, it is presently impossible to say with any confidence what Tolkien would have thought of as acceptable Quenya in this regard.
There is, however, one important use of the gerund which luckily is attested in our tiny corpus. In English, the normal infinitive (marked by "to") is often used to indicate purpose: "The man has come to see the king." Whether this could be rendered "directly" into Quenya as ?I nér utúlië cenë i aran none can say at present – but I tend to doubt that this is a valid construction. Notice the wording used in Cirion's Oath: Vanda sina termaruva Elenna·nórëo alcar enyalien. Tolkien's translation in UT:305 goes "this oath shall stand in memory of the glory of the Land of the Star", but more literally the Quenya wording is something like "this oath shall stand for recalling [the] Elenna-land's glory". Cf. Tolkien's comments on the form enyalien in UT:317, already quoted in part:

yal- 'summon', in infinitive (or gerundial) form en-yalië, here in dative 'for the re-calling', but governing a direct object [namely alcar "glory"]: thus 'to recall or "commemorate" the glory'.

So here we have a verb en-yal- "re-call-" = "commemorate". Add the gerundial ending -ië, and we get the gerund enyalië, "recalling". Since a gerund may be described as a verb functioning as a noun, it may also receive case endings as a noun. So Tolkien supplied the dative ending -n "for" to produce enyalien "for recalling". The word can now function as the indirect object of the sentence, the "benefactor" of the verbal action: The oath termaruva "shall stand", and this action promotes "recalling" (enyalië). The dative gerund enyalien "for recalling" in turn has Elenna·nórëo alcar, "[the] Elenna-land's glory", as its object.
Of course, in English one does not say "this oath shall stand for recalling the Elenna-land's glory", but rather "this oath shall stand (in order) to recall the glory of the land of Elenna". Nonetheless, this example seems to tell us that English infinitives indicating purpose should be rendered into Quenya as gerunds with a dative ending attached. "The man has come (in order) to see the king" would then translate into I nér utúlië cenien i aran, literally "The man has come for seeing the king". (If we were to slavishly follow the word order Tolkien used in Cirion's Oath, with the gerund at the end of the sentence, we would actually have to say i nér utúlië i aran cenien = "the man has come the king for seeing"! However, Quenya word order is in all likelihood quite flexible.)
The rule we have tried to make out may be summarized like this: If in English you can add the words "in order" in front of a infinitive without destroying the meaning (never mind the style!), this infinitive indicates purpose and should be rendered into Quenya as a gerund inflected for dative. 

Forming gerunds from A-stem verbs: All the gerunds so far exemplified have been formed from primary (ending-less) verbs. What happens if the ending -ië is to be added to an A-stem verb? When I first wrote this course, I had to rely on indirect evidence, but I concluded that in such cases the vowel -a probably disappears before the ending -ië. This has since been confirmed by newly-published material: VT49:48 lists tengwië as a “verbal noun” derived from tengwa-, one of the verbs meaning “read” (in turn derived from the noun tengwa “letter”). Thus, tengwië means “reading”. Other possible attestations: Listing various forms of the verb ora- "urge", Tolkien did include orië (VT41:13), and while he did not clearly identify this or any other of the forms, orië may well be intended as the gerund. Also notice nainië "lament(ing)" as a derivative of the verb naina- "to lament" (compare RGEO:66 with the Etymologies, entry NAY): Nainië may be seen either as a gerund or as a verbal noun.
As we have already touched on, -ië can also function as a general abstract ending, somewhat like English "-ness". Where -ië is used to form abstract nouns from adjectives, adjectives in -a lose this final vowel before -ië is added; mornië "darkness" is apparently formed from morna "dark". Another attested pair of this kind is láta "open" vs. látië "openness". The abstract ending -ië is certainly closely related to the gerundial ending -ië; basically it is the same ending we are dealing with (as noted above, the distinction between gerunds and abstract nouns often becomes blurred). So starting from verbs like orta- "raise" and nurta- "hide", we may probably derive the gerunds ortië, nurtië and build sentences like ortië Pelóri nurtien Valinor úmë mára noa "raising [the] Pelóri to hide Valinor was not a good idea". (It wasn't – see MR:401, 405 for Tolkien's critical comments on this move by the Valar!)
In the case of verbs in -ya, e.g. harya- "to possess", the entire ending -ya would probably drop out before -ië is suffixed. Otherwise the gerund would have to be **haryië, but yi is not a possible Quenya combination. Abstract nouns formed by means of the ending -ië from adjectives in -ya are seen to surrender the latter ending, e.g. verië "boldness" from verya "bold" (see the Etymologies, entry BER). We may probably assume that verië would also be the gerund of the related verb verya- "to dare". So the gerund of a verb like harya- "to possess" is most likely harië (e.g. in a platitude like harië malta úva carë nér anwavë alya, "possessing gold will not make a man truly rich").

THE PRONOUN "WE"
We have been practicing various pronominal endings: -n or -nyë "I" (the short form must not be confused with the dative ending!), -lyë "you", -s "it", -ltë "they" and -t "them". It is time to introduce the endings for the first person plural, corresponding to the English pronoun "we".
	This is a rather complicated story, actually. There are several Quenya endings for "we", and Tolkien seems to have redefined their exact meaning repeatedly. One of the relevant endings occurs in the Cormallen Praise: Andavë laituvalmet, "long shall we bless them". Here we have a future-tense verb with pronominal endings for "we" (subject) and "them" (object): lait·uva·lme·t, "bless·shall·we·them". The ending for "we" is seen to be -lmë (-lme-).
	But we have more evidence. In WJ:371 Tolkien discusses the Quenya exclamation vá, signaling refusal or prohibition: in effect "no!" in the sense of "I will not" or "do not!" Tolkien also indicated that this vá could receive explicit pronominal endings, such as -n(yë) for "I", producing the form ván or ványë for "I won't". But Tolkien also mentioned the form vammë, "we won't". So here the pronominal ending for "we" is suddenly not -lmë, but rather –mmë!
NOTE: Notice, by the way, how the long á of vá is shortened in the form vammë. This is one of the examples indicating that Quenya normally cannot have a long vowel in front of a consonant cluster or a long consonant – a phonological rule we have repeatedly alluded to earlier in this course. The fact that the vowel remains long in ványë suggests that ny is perceived as a single consonant, palatalized n like Spanish ñ, and not as a cluster n + y.
	But we are not finished. In VT42:35, in Bill Welden's article Negation in Quenya, he cites a sentence including -lwë as the ending for "we" (the relevant word is navilwë "we judge"). However, in VT43:6, one ending for "we" is said to include the consonants -lv-, not -lw- as in -lwë. This ending for "we" would correspond closely to the ending for "our" (see the next lesson), and armed with this knowledge we recognize another -lv- in the word omentielvo "of our meeting" occurring in LotR. There is also evidence for -ngwë as one ending meaning “we”.
	In short, there is a whole zoo of endings that seem to mean "we", and before we can even start to make sense of them, two facts must be recognized. Firstly, the chaos is partly due to Tolkien's incessant revisions; we should not think that all of these samples belong to quite the same form of Quenya. Secondly, Quenya upholds distinctions that do not appear in English. To a speaker of English, the pronoun "we" is just "we". But this system would appear rather over-simplified to the Eldar. They distinguished between several kinds of "we".
	Most importantly, "we" may be either inclusive or exclusive. Tolkien referred to the ending -mmë as the "first [person] plural exclusive" (WJ:371, emphasis added). At the time Tolkien wrote this, the ending -mmë denoted an exclusive "we", a "we" that excludes the person(s) addressed. The exclamation vammë "we won't" represents a refusal as it would be spoken to some other party (likely the one whose will "we" refuse to obey). This other party is not included in "we", but stands outside the "we" group. Therefore, the exclusive "we" is proper here.
	On the other hand, the ending -lmë at one point denoted an inclusive "we": The party being addressed is included in "we". When Tolkien first wrote the sentence andavë laituvalmet "long shall we bless them", he probably intended it to be interpreted as follows: The people who are praising Frodo and Sam are addressing one another, not the Ring-bearers. They encourage one another to praise the Ring-bearers. If they had said "long shall we bless you" instead, addressing Frodo and Sam directly, they would have had to use an exclusive "we". Frodo and Sam would not be part of this exclusive "we"; they would stand outside the "we" group addressing them.
	Back in Lesson Eight, it was noted that while the author of this course may sometimes seem to refer to himself as "we", this is not (necessarily!) because he has an ego of royal dimensions. The author tends to include the reader in this "we", as if implying that the author and his readers somehow share this odyssey through the various aspects of Quenya grammar. (You can take it as a friendly gesture, or as a particularly cunning brain-wash technique which the author uses to somehow make you an accomplice whenever he draws conclusions that he should actually take the full responsibility for himself!) Anyhow, in Quenya there could have been no misunderstanding. There would be distinct forms for exclusive "we" and inclusive "we". A royal "we", referring to the speaker/writer only, could only be exclusive. An author using the word "we" to refer to himself and his readers, directly addressing them in his text, would have to use the inclusive "we".
	Well and good – but what are the endings for inclusive and exclusive "we" according to Tolkien's more-or-less final decision? Some of the forms cited above were apparently abandoned or redefined. At the time Tolkien published LotR, the ending for inclusive "we" was quite clearly -lmë, as in laituvalmet "we shall praise them". The corresponding ending for inclusive "our" occurred in the greeting "a star shines on the hour of our meeting": In the first edition of LotR, the word "of our meeting" appeared as omentielmo (notice that it includes the same combination -lm- as in -lmë). We have already pointed out that in the essay Quendi and Eldar, written about five years after the publication of LotR, Tolkien explicitly identified -mmë as an ending for exclusive "we" (WJ:371). In the first version of this course, I likewise used -lmë for inclusive "we" and -mmë for exclusive "we".
	However, it now turns out that Tolkien later carried out an important revision of this part of the pronoun table, and since this revision was partially reflected in the Second Edition of LotR (1966), I guess it is so "canonical" that teachers and learners of Quenya should take it into account. When Tolkien revised his magnum opus, the original omentielmo in Frodo's greeting to Gildor became omentielvo. Dick Plotz, famous among Tolkien-linguists as the recipient of the Plotz Letter containing the table of Quenya case endings, also received a letter from Tolkien explaining this change: The forms in -lm- were not after all inclusive, but exclusive! Since Frodo is talking to Gildor and the other Elves when he says "our meeting", an exclusive form is not proper, and according to Tolkien's latest discoveries, the inclusive form was to include the cluster -lv-: Thus omentielmo had to become omentielvo. VT43:6 refers to this revision from -lm- to -lv- in the inclusive forms. (We will discuss this revision ad nauseam in the next lesson.) 
	One consequence of this revision is that the Cormallen Praise has to be re-interpreted. When Tolkien first used the phrase andavë laituvalmet "long shall we praise them", he surely thought of this as an inclusive "we": The people of Gondor are encouraging one another to praise the Ring-bearers. After the revision reflected in the Second Edition, the form laituvalmet suddenly contains an exclusive "we" instead: Now the meaning must be something like "we, the people of Gondor, speaking to the universe in general, declare that we [exclusive!] will long praise the Ring-bearers!" 
	One minor problem we have already mentioned: if the (revised) ending for inclusive "we" is to contain -lv-, why does the ending -lwë (rather than -lvë) appear in the word navilwë "we judge" (VT42:35)? Various explanations have been offered, but it seems -lwë may simply be an older form of the ending that later became -lvë. I will use -lvë here. 
	We also have endings for dual "we", referring to two persons only: "the two of us". (The endings -lvë and -lmë would signify "we" involving three or more persons.) According to VT43:6, the pronominal endings for dual "we" have -mm- (instead of -lv- or -lm-). The ending -mmë is indeed attested, for instance in the form vammë "we won't" referred to above. But this form dates from the earlier conceptual phase, when -mmë was still the "first [person] plural exclusive" (WJ:371, emphasis added). Later, Tolkien changed his mind and decided that -mmë should be dual and not plural. It denotes a “we” of two persons only: the speaker and one other. In earlier versions of this course, I had to point out that it was uncertain whether -mmë is inclusive or exclusive. We couldn’t even tell whether there was such a distinction in the dual pronouns. Material since published has however made it clear that -mmë is exclusive, a dual “we” meaning “I and one other”, and this one other guy is not the person addressed. The corresponding ending for inclusive dual “we” (that is, “thou and I”) is variously given as -ngwë or -nquë in Tolkien’s notes. (VT49:16, 51) 
As we have seen Tolkien created something of a mess when trying to make up his mind where in the plural/dual and inclusive/exclusive grid the various endings belong. But the more-or-less final resolution seems to be this: the ending for inclusive "we" is to be -lvë or archaic -lwë (replacing former -lmë), the new ending for exclusive "we" is -lmë (redefined from inclusive to exclusive!), whereas -mmë (formerly exclusive plural) ended up as dual inclusive “we”, with either -ngwë or -nquë as the corresponding dual inclusive form. Only the plural endings -lvë and -lmë are used in the exercises below.

AN INDEFINITE PRONOUN
In English, words like "one" and "you" are often used with deliberately vague or general reference: "One has to earn a living..." or "you have to wonder..." Here, "one" is not the number 1 (Quenya er or minë), and "you" does not refer to the one who is addressed. For such meanings, Quenya has the pronoun quen (WJ:361) – essentially an unstressed variant of the noun quén, which simply means "person". Though ultimately related to Quendë "Elf", these words have no special reference to Elves. As usual, we lack attested examples, but we must assume that quen would be used for "one" or "someone" in such sentences as quen milyanë leryalë "one longed for release" or quen rancë i yulma "someone broke the cup". Presumably quen may also receive case endings, e.g. genitive queno "one's" or dative quenen (which in English would often be translated "for you" rather than "for one": Matië yávë ná mára quenen, "eating fruit is good for you" – "you" here meaning "people in general"!)
	Most Quenya pronouns usually appear as endings, and it may be that Tolkien at one stage even reckoned with a pronominal ending for the indefinite pronoun "one". There exists an early "Qenya" text where this meaning seems to be associated with an ending -o: Kildo kirya ninqe, translated "a white ship one saw" (MC:220-221). However, transforming this into LotR-style Quenya would probably require rather more than altering the spelling to cildo cirya ninquë: While the two last words would certainly be acceptable, the verb form kildo does not seem to fit Tolkien's later system, and the status of the ending -o at the LotR stage is highly doubtful. If we aim for LotR-style Quenya, it is certainly much safer to use the indefinite pronoun quen from a post-LotR source. 
NOTE: Yet another impersonal pronoun is mo, as in Tolkien's sentence alasaila ná lá carë tai mo navë mára, "it is unwise not to do what one judges good" (VT42:34). But it is less than clear whether this mo could receive case endings  (in the genitive, this form would be unchanged!) In the exercises of this course, I have used quen throughout. 

Summary of Lesson Thirteen: The Quenya dative case identifies indirect objects, the party indirectly affected by a verbal action (often the beneficiary of this action, though the indirect object may also be adversely affected by it). In the singular, the dative ending is -n. (When it is to be added to a noun ending in a consonant, a helping vowel -e- is inserted before it.) Nouns with nominative plurals in -i have dative plurals in -in; this ending -in is also used in case of nouns which have nominative plurals in -r, so that the dative form corresponding to nominative Eldar is Eldain. The dual dative ending is -nt, at least in the case of nouns which have nominative dual forms in -t. (Nouns with nominative dual forms in -u should perhaps have dative dual forms in -uen, if we can put any trust in earlier material where the ending -n was actually assigned to the genitive case rather than the dative.) – A gerund is a form of the verb which can function almost like a noun, denoting the corresponding verbal action, but unlike regular verbal nouns, gerunds are still able to take objects. Quenya gerunds are formed with the ending -ië (also a general abstract ending); if this suffix is to be added to an A-stem, the final -a evidently drops out. In the case of verbs in -ya, this entire ending is apparently omitted before the suffix -ië. English infinitives expressing purpose (i.e., infinitives signifying "[in order] to do" something) translate into Quenya as gerunds inflected for dative, e.g. hirien "(in order) to find". – Quenya has several pronominal endings corresponding to English "we". One of them is (apparently) -lvë, denoting a "we" that includes the party that is addressed, whereas the ending -lmë expresses an exclusive "we", used when the speaker addresses a party outside the "we" group that the speaker belongs to. (We ignore an earlier conceptual phase, when -lmë was inclusive "we" and -mmë the exclusive; at a later stage, -mmë ended up as a dual exclusive “we", corresponding to -ngwë or -nquë as the dual inclusive form.) – The indefinite pronoun "one" or "someone" is in Quenya quen. Presumably it can receive case endings, e.g. genitive queno "one's".

VOCABULARY

yunquë "twelve" (In the first version of this course I used rasta, cf. the entry RÁSAT in the Etymologies – but there is now evidence that yunquë is a more long-standing word for “12” in Tolkien’s conception., attested in sources both earlier and later than the LotR.)
mahta- "to fight"
anta- "to give" (In an early source, the Qenya Lexicon p. 31, the pa.t. .appeared as ánë, which I used in earlier versions of this course.  But as I noted, “It is entirely possible that in Tolkien's later Quenya, the past tense of anta- could just as well be regular: antanë.” This form has now been confirmed in PE17:91.)
suc- "to drink"
anna "gift"
alassë "joy"
hroa "body" (related to a word introduced earlier, hrávë "flesh"; Tolkien meant them to be descended from Primitive Elvish srawā and srāwē, respectively. See MR:350.)
noa "idea"
cala "light" (as in Calaquendi "Light-elves", Calacirya/-cilya "Light-cleft")  
mára "good" (in the sense of "fit, useful" – Quenya has other words for "good" in the moral sense)
quen indefinite pronoun "one", "someone"
arwa adjective "possessing", "in control of", "having", followed by genitive (see note) 

NOTE ON ARWA "POSSESSING, IN CONTROL OF": This adjective is listed in the Etymologies, entry 3AR (though it is derived from a variant root GAR). It can be used to form compound adjectives; Tolkien mentioned the example aldarwa "having trees" = "tree-grown" (alda + arwa, "tree-having"). But apparently arwa "having, possessing" can also be used by itself, and then it would be followed by a genitive form. (As we have touched on above, the Quenya genitive ending was -n when Tolkien wrote the Etymologies, but we must assume that the rule as such was still valid when he changed the ending to -o later.) So we may probably have phrases like nér arwa collo, "a man having/possessing a cloak" (colla "cloak", genitive collo). Perhaps this may simply be translated "a man with a cloak", and if we use arwa to mean "with", it would mean that the words for "with" and "without" (arwa and ú, respectively) are both followed by genitive! Yet arwa is said to be an adjective and not a preposition, so arwa presumably agrees in number, becoming arwë (for archaic arwai) when pointing back to a plural word: Neri arwë collo, "men possessing a cloak", Naucor arwë harmaron "Dwarves possessing treasures", arani arwë ohtarion "kings in control of warriors".

EXERCISES

1. Translate into English:

A. I nér antanë i nissen anna.
B. Anar anta cala Ambaren.
C. Hiruvalvë i harma, ar antuvalves i Naucoin yunquë.
D. Matië hrávë carë quen tiuca, ar umilvë merë tiucë hroar, an tiucë hroar umir vanyë.
E. Lendelmë mir i osto hirien i sailë nissi, an mernelmë cenitat.
F. Nér arwa márë noaron ná saila ar antuva sérë ar alassë i oston.
G. Utultielmet quetien rimbë nation.
H. Sucië limpë umë mára queno hroan.

2. Translate into Quenya:

I. Someone gave the warrior a great sword.
J. Making a house for the boys is a good idea.
K. We (pl. inclusive) fight for peace; fighting does not give the people [any] joy, for we (pl. inclusive) have seen the light.
L. Speaking the Elven-tongue (Eldalambë) is a great joy to Men (Atani).
M. The warriors of the two lands will fight for the [twin] peoples (dual), and we (exclusive) will go through a great darkness to find light.
N. The men having the good wine wanted cups to drink the wine, and the king's thralls gave the men twelve cups of gold. YYY
O. We (exclusive) want to go into the city to free all Men (Atani) and (to) give the gold of the king to the thralls.
P. The walls of the city are great; we (pl. inclusive) have made them to protect the people.

LESSON FOURTEEN
The Allative and Ablative cases. Equë and auta: two peculiar verbs. Possessive pronominal endings: -nya, -lya, -lva, -lma, -mma, -ngwa

THE ALLATIVE AND ABLATIVE CASES
The dative case ending -n presented in the previous lesson may sometimes correspond to the English preposition "to", as when it is appended to gerunds: enyalien = "to recall" (UT:317). Yet this is a rather abstract kind of "to": As we have seen, the Quenya dative may also be translated as phrases involving the preposition "for", or its meaning may simply be expressed by a specific word order in English.
	However, Quenya does have a special case form implying "to" in the more basic sense of "towards" or "against"; the Latin term for such a case is allative. The relevant Quenya ending is -nna: In the entry Eldanna in the UT Index, Christopher Tolkien identifies this ending as a "suffix...of movement towards". The word Eldanna itself is not a bad example: It may be translated "Elfwards" and was used by the Númenoreans as the name of a bay on the west coast of Númenor – thus in the direction of the Blessed Realm where the Eldar dwelt (UT:164). In Elendil's Declaration, repeated by Aragorn at his coronation, the ending -nna carries the full force of "to" with the implication of motion towards: Et Eärello Endorenna utúlien = "out of the Great Sea to Middle-earth [Endor] I am come." Cf. also the sentence Sin Quentë Quendingoldo Elendilenna (PM:401) – apparently meaning "Thus Spoke Quendingoldo to Elendil" (or perhaps "This Quendingoldo Said to Elendil"; the meaning of the word sin is not quite clear). As the allative forms of cirya "ship" and lassë "leaf", the Plotz Letter points to ciryanna "to a ship" and lassenna "to a leaf". (Of course, the stress now falls on the vowel of the second-to-last syllable because of the following consonant cluster introduced by the ending -nna: ciryAnna, lassEnna.) So if you want to say "I'll go to the ship" in Quenya, you don't normally use a separate word for "to", but employ the ending -nna instead: Lelyuvan i ciryanna. 
While the ending -nna may sometimes be rendered "-wards" in English, e.g. Elenna "Starwards" as a name of Númenor (see below), the English ending "-wards" cannot be freely applied to any noun like the Quenya ending can. But if the day ever comes when Columbus lendë Americanna can be translated "Columbus went Americawards", people thinking this is acceptable English, the language shall have acquired a living allative case.

NOTE: Besides -nna, there are also traces of an older allative ending in Quenya. In primitive Elvish it had the form -da, later reduced to -d (WJ:366). In Quenya, this -d became -z and later -r, and we have already met it in the word mir "into" (this is literally mi-r "in-to", cf. mi "in"!) Since this ending came to clash with the plural ending -r, as in Eldar, it only survived in a handful of words indicating motion to or towards a point. Attested examples include tar "thither", oar "away", yar "to whom" and mir "into". Actually "into" can also be minna with the normal, "modern" allative ending -nna. Likewise, "thither" can be tanna as well as tar.

	In the plural, the ending -nna changes to -nnar, hence lassennar "to leaves" and ciryannar "to ships" (e.g. lelyuvan i ciryannar "I'll go to the ships"). The final -r here appearing seems to be the same plural element that we are familiar with from nominative forms like Eldar, ciryar.

Since Quenya may express "to, towards" by means of a case ending, the question naturally arises whether there is an ending for "from" as well. There is.
As we pointed out in Lesson 11, the genitive ending -o may occasionally take on this meaning, as in one word in Namárië: Oiolossëo = "from Oiolossë" (Mount Everwhite). However, the idea of "from" is more regularly expressed by the ablative case, which is marked by the ending -llo. According to Plotz, we can have forms like lassello "from a leaf" and ciryallo "from a ship" (again accented on the second-to-last syllable, of course). So we may build sentences like tulin i ciryallo "I come from the ship". For a Tolkien-made example, cf. the phrase métima hrestallo "from the last shore" in the Markirya poem. Both the ablative and the allative cases are exemplified in the phrase telmello talmanna "from hood [telmë] to base [talma]", that is, "from top to bottom". (In the entry TEL of the Etymologies as reproduced in LR, this expression is actually cited as "telmello telmanna", but this is plainly a typo, for as is evident from the entry TAL, the word for "base, foundation, root" is not telma, but talma. VT46:18 confirms that talmanna is the correct reading of the allative form in Tolkien’s manuscript.)
As for the plural form of the ablative, there are apparently several options. Just like the suffix -nna for allative turns into -nnar in the plural, the ablative ending -llo may have a plural equivalent -llor: In the Markirya poem, Tolkien used elenillor as the plural ablative of elen "star", hence "from stars". Also, when making a Quenya translation of the Sub Tuum Praesidium, Tolkien rendered "from all dangers" as ilya raxellor (VT44:5); the noun "danger" would seem to be raxë. (Incidentally, we might have expected ilyë raxellor instead; cf. ilyë tier for "all paths" in Namárië.)
However, according to the Plotz letter, the plural ablative is to have the ending in -llon instead. Here we have the same plural marker -n as in the ending -on for plural genitive (the basic genitive ending -o + the plural sign -n, WJ:407). VT47:21 gives illon as a word meaning "from whom" (plural). One of Tolkien's earlier tables of Quenya case endings lists both -llor and -llon as possible plural ablative endings. So "I come from the ships" could evidently be both tulin i ciryallor and tulin i ciryallon. I generally prefer -llon, the Plotz variant, since the Plotz letter is our best late source regarding the Quenya case system – but -llor must be considered a valid alternative.

Dual allative/ablative: The dual forms of the allative and ablative endings include the already-familiar dual element -t, which replaces one of the consonants of the suffixes -nna and -llo to produce -nta and -lto instead. Thus the nominative ciryat "two ships, a couple of ships" corresponds to an allative form ciryanta "to(wards) a couple of ships" and an ablative form ciryalto "from a couple of ships". These are the examples Tolkien used in the Plotz letter, but again it is uncertain whether the same endings would be suffixed to a noun that forms its nominative dual in -u rather than -t. Still using Aldu as our standard example, should "to the Two Trees" be Aldunta or simply Aldunna? Similarly, should "from the Two Trees" be Aldulto or simply Aldullo? I tend to think of Aldunna, Aldullo as the more likely forms, but lacking attested examples we cannot be sure. (For a fuller discussion, see the Appendix to this course.) 

Additional shades of meaning of the Allative and Ablative cases: While the primary implication of these cases is "to(wards)" and "from", they may have other shades of meaning as well.
The idea of actual, physical motion towards or from something is not always present. Notice the use of the ablative in a phrase found in J.R.R. Tolkien – Artist and Illustrator: Itarildë Ondolindello, "Itarildë from Ondolindë", or using the better-known Sindarin forms: Idril from Gondolin. In English, this is best rendered Idril of Gondolin, identifying Idril as a person living in Gondolin; the Quenya wording may not necessarily imply that Idril had actually left Gondolin. Possibly, the ablative can also be used in other ways that carry no implication of motion. It may be noted that regarding the Quenya verb ruc- "to feel fear or horror", Tolkien wrote that it is "constructed with 'from' of the object feared" (WJ:415). He did not provide any further information or examples, but "from" is regularly expressed by the ablative case in Quenya. So given that the Quenya word for "monster" is ulundo, perhaps "I fear the monster" would translate something like rucin i ulundollo. (Insofar as the words "from" and "of" express related meanings, this may be compared to such an English wording as "I'm afraid of the monster".)
As for the allative, it does not always mean "to(wards)", but may also imply "on, upon": The meanings are related insofar as an object that rests "upon" something also presses "towards" it, though there is no actual motion. This use of the allative may typically occur in connection with the verb caita- "lie", as in this sentence from the prose Namárië: Mornië caita i falmalinnar, "darkness lies on the foaming waves". (Falma = "foaming wave", here not only with the plural allative ending -nnar but also the "partitive plural" marker -li. In this context the ending -li- may imply a great number of waves, for in his interlinear translation in RGEO:67, Tolkien analyzed falma-li-nnar as "foaming waves-many-upon".) Further examples of allative forms implying "on, upon" are found in the Markirya poem; we have atalantië mindoninnar (or, mindonnar) "upon fallen towers" and axor ilcalannar "on bones gleaming".
It seems the allative can also take on the meaning of "against" with associations of enmity. In a phrase that may be translated "Tar-Calion made war on the Powers” (Valar), Tolkien used the allative: Valannar (LR:47). Thus Tar-Calion (Ar-Pharazôn) initiated a war against the Valar.
However, the student should also notice that while the allative and ablative cases may not always imply physical motion to or from something, their basic meanings of "to, towards" and "from" may also be strengthened. Instead of just indicating motion "towards" something, the allative may also suggest motion "into" it: Attested examples include ëari lantier cilyanna "seas fell into a chasm" (LR:56) and mannar Valion "into the hands of the Vali [Valar]" (Fíriel's Song). The ablative may likewise indicate motion "out of" something rather than merely "from" it: The word sindanóriello occurring in Namárië Tolkien translated "out of a grey country" (though in the interlinear analysis in RGEO:67, he broke it down as sinda-nórie-llo, "grey-country-from").
These additional uses of the allative and ablative cases may lead to some ambiguities: Is lenden i coanna to be interpreted "I went to the house" or "I went into the house"? Where confusion may arise, it is probably best to use the independent word mir (or minna) if "into" is the desired meaning: Lenden mir/minna i coa. As for "out of" as opposed to merely "from", Elendil's Declaration demonstrates that the word et "out" can be placed in front of an ablative form to clarify the meaning: Et Eärello...utúlien, "out of [or, out from] the Great Sea I am come." Some would even analyze et "out" as a preposition governing the ablative case (like ú "without" governs the genitive case).

Adding the allative and ablative endings to nouns ending in a consonant: Suffixes like -nna and -llo and their dual/plural variants can never be added directly to a noun ending in a consonant without creating impossible consonant clusters. For instance, the allative "to Elendil" cannot be **Elendilnna, for Quenya phonology does not permit the group "lnn". As is evident from the actual form Elendilenna occurring in PM:401, the language may work around this problem by inserting a connecting vowel e before the case ending. The ablative and allative forms occurring in Elendil's Declaration in LotR may be examples of the same: et Eärello "out of the Great Sea" (Eär: Quenya name of the Ocean), Endorenna "to Middle-earth" (Endor: Quenya for "Mid-land" = "Middle-earth"). However, the word Eär is also cited in the form Eärë (SD:305), and Endor is shortened from an older form Endórë, so we cannot be absolutely certain that the e's occurring before the case endings in the forms Eärello, Endorenna are not simply part of the nouns proper. On the other hand, the example Elendilenna almost certainly includes a connecting vowel e, for there is no reason to assume that the name Elendil ever ended in -ë. So the main strategy for avoiding unwanted consonant clusters before case endings is probably to insert an -e- before the ending.
	It should be noted, though, that in the case of a plural noun requiring a connecting vowel, it seems that -i- rather than -e- is preferred. We have already mentioned that in the Markirya poem, Tolkien used elenillor as the plural ablative form of elen "star". If effect, the pl. ablative ending -llor has been added to the nominative plural eleni. One version of the Markirya poem also had mindoninnar as the pl. allative "upon towers" (before Tolkien decided to go for a contracted form instead; see below). Here, the pl. allative ending has been added to the nominative plural mindoni "towers".
NOTE: Notice, though, that nouns in -ë with nominative plurals in -i (e.g. lassë "leaf", pl. lassi) do not change their final -ë to -i before -nnar or -llon/-llor is suffixed: Plotz indicates that the pl. allative and ablative forms of lassë are lassennar and lassellon, respectively – not **lassinnar, **lassillon. Cf. also raxellor, not **raxillor, as the plural ablative of raxë "danger" (VT44:5). The plural allative/ablative endings are simply added to the uninflected noun in -ë. In this respect, the allative and ablative cases differ from the genitive case: A noun that forms its nominative plural in -i always receives this ending before the genitive plural ending -on is added – the genitive plural of lassë being lassion, not **lassëon.
	If one does not insert any connecting vowel, another way of getting rid of an unwanted consonant cluster is to simply omit the final consonant of the noun that is to receive a case ending. Especially where the final consonant of the noun is identical to the first consonant of the case ending, these two consonants may simply merge. As indicated above, Tolkien first used mindoninnar as the plural allative of mindon "tower". But then he decided to drop the connecting vowel intruding before -nnar and introduced a contracted form instead: Mindonnar, which simply represents mindon-nnar. As we see, the final -n of mindon merges with the first n of the ending -nnar. A more-well known example is Elenna (for Elen-nna) as a name of Númenor: After following the Star of Eärendil across the ocean to their new land, the Edain "called that land Elenna, which is Starwards" (Akallabêth; cf. UT:317: Elenna·nórë = "the land named Starwards"). In a similar fashion, perhaps the ablative of Menel "heaven" could – or even should – be Menello (for Menel-llo) rather than Menelello.
NOTE: We may wonder how certain nouns with special stem-forms would be treated. In the case of talan, talam- "floor", the allative "to a floor" or "(up)on a floor" might probably be expressed as talamenna with a connecting vowel inserted (the ablative should almost certainly be talamello), but perhaps we could also start from talan and use talanna (for talan-nna) as the allative form? And what about a noun like toron, torn- (an alternative word for “brother”, though háno occurs in a later source)? Should "to a brother" be tornenna with a connecting vowel e inserted between the stem-form and the case ending, or may we simply say toronna for toron-nna? We cannot know what Tolkien would have accepted as correct Quenya. I would not reject any of these alternatives as wrong.
It seems that the final -n of the four directions Formen, Hyarmen, Rómen, Númen "North, South, East, West" quite regularly drops out before the case endings for allative, ablative and locative (the locative case will be discussed in the next lesson). One haven in the east of Númenor was called Rómenna, literally "Eastwards" (see its entry in the UT index, and cf. LR:47) – clearly because ships sailed eastwards from it. Of course, Rómen-nna > Rómenna as such is just another example of a final consonant of a noun merging with the first consonant of the case ending because they happen to be identical. However, Namárië provides Rómello "from the East" as the ablative of Rómen "East", and here there can be no doubt that the final -n has been omitted to avoid the impossible form **Rómenllo. It may be that Rómenello with a connecting vowel inserted would also be a valid form, but as pointed out above, contracted forms seem to be normal when the words for the four basic directions are to be inflected for allative or ablative.

EQUË AND AUTA: TWO PECULIAR VERBS
¤ The verb equë: We have earlier introduced the Quenya word for "say" or "speak": quet- (aorist quetë, present tense quéta, past tense quentë). Yet this verb is not always used; there is an alternative word that may be used to introduce quotations. In WJ:392, Tolkien refers to

...a curious and evidently archaic form that survives only in the languages of Aman: [primitive] *ekwē, Q[uenya] eque, T[elerin] epe. It has no tense forms...being mostly used before either a proper name (sg. or pl.) or a full independent pronoun, in the senses say / says or said. A quotation then follows, either direct, or less usually indirect after a 'that'-conjunction [e.g., "Galadriel said that she wants to go to Middle-earth"]

So as far as inflection is concerned, this equë may well be the simplest verb in the entire language. "It has no tense forms", so equë may be interpreted either as a past tense "said" or as present tense "say(s)", depending on the context (perhaps it could even cover the future tense "shall say"!) It is used mainly where the subject is a full independent pronoun (to be discussed later in this course) or a proper name (not a common noun). Also notice the word order indicated by Tolkien: The word equë comes before its subject. Tolkien gave us no actual sentences containing the word equë, but based on the information he provided, something like the following must be possible: 

	Equë Elendil: "Et Eärello Endorenna utúlien."
	Elendil says/said: "Out of the Great Sea to Middle-earth I am come."

Tolkien glossed equë not only as "says", but also as "say". Since "say" must be understood as a plural verb in English, it seems that unlike normal verbs, equë does not receive the ending -r even where it has a plural subject or more than one subject. Notice that Tolkien stated that equë is typically "used before...a proper name (sg. or pl.)". Now proper names normally don't appear in the plural (except in sentences like "there are many Johns in this town"), so when Tolkien speaks of "pl." proper names, he probably means several proper names occurring together. So we must assume that a sentence like this would be acceptable:

	Equë Altariel ar Teleporno: "Utúliemmë Valinorello."
	Altariel and Teleporno [Galadriel and Celeborn] say/said: "We have come from Valinor" (notice the ending -mmë for dual exclusive "we"!) 

Tolkien indicated that equë rarely received suffixes of any kind, usually not even pronominal endings (WJ:392), though forms like equen "said I" may also occur (WJ:415).
	It cannot be wrong to replace equë with a form of the verb quet-, complete with all the normal inflections (Elendil quetë/quentë... "Elendil says/said...",  Altariel ar Teleporno quetit/quentet... "Galadriel and Celeborn say/said...") Where the subject is not a proper name or a full independent pronoun, it would seem that a form of quet- is usually to be preferred: I nís quentë... "the woman said..." Perhaps word order is also significant. Tolkien appears to be saying that equë is used to introduce a following quotation; if the speaker and the act of speaking is mentioned after the quotation, it is perhaps better to use a form of quet-, e.g.

	Equë Elendil: "Utúlien." = Elendil said: "I am come."
	but:
	"Utúlien," Elendil quentë = "I am come," Elendil said.

Also where no direct or indirect quotation is included in the sentence at all, it is probably best to use a form of quet-. Cf. the attested example Sin Quentë Quendingoldo Elendilenna referred to above (PM:401) – apparently meaning "Thus Spoke Quendingoldo [= Pengolodh] to Elendil". Perhaps quentë could have been replaced by equë here as well – but probably not.

¤ The verb auta-: This verb means "pass" or "go away, leave (the point of the speaker's thought)" (WJ:366). Readers of the Silmarillion will have encountered it in chapter 20, as part of a battle-cry: Auta i lómë! "The night is passing!"
	According to the rules so far set out in the course, this verb is quite irregular, though Tolkien may not have thought of it that way: In WJ:366 he refers to its various "regular forms". Anyway, the past tense of auta- is not **autanë as we might expect. There are actually several possible past tense forms. One of them is anwë, formed by nasal-infixion of the primitive root-word AWA; the ending -ta seen in auta- (primitive ?awatā-) does not appear at all in this past tense form. However, the form anwë was "only found in archaic language", so we will focus on the "modern" forms instead.
	There are two sets of past and perfect forms of the verb auta-, with somewhat different shades of meaning. If the meaning is "went away" in a purely physical sense, about someone leaving one place and going to another, the past tense form oantë is used. According to Tolkien, this form is "regular for a -ta verb of this class" (though most verbs in -ta seem to form their past tense simply by adding the ending -në). The past tense is supposed to descend from awantē, evidently a nasal-infixed form of awatā, and in Quenya, these forms regularly developed into oantë and auta, respectively. (For the shift awa > oa, cf. one word introduced in the previous lesson: hroa "body", which Tolkien derived from primitive srawā.) – The perfect tense of auta- used in the same "physical" sense is oantië = "has gone away [to another place]". This perfect form is obviously influenced by the past tense oantë. Tolkien noticed that the form oantië shows "intrusion of n from the past [tense form]" (WJ:366): Normally, nasal-infixion does not occur in the perfect tense.
	The other set of past and perfect forms of the verb auta- seems no less irregular. The alternative past tense is vánë, the perfect avánië. The first syllable of vánë is apparently the Quenya descendant of the stem wā (WJ:366, apparently another manifestation of AWA), whereas the ending -në must be simply the normal past tense ending. (Again, the perfect form seems influenced by the past tense form – the n of vánë sneaking into the perfect avánië.) 
The form vánë and the corresponding perfect avánië have acquired a more "abstract" meaning than the forms oantë, oantië. Vánë does not mean "went away (to another place)", but rather "disappeared", "passed". The perfect avánië occurs (with the plural marker -r) in Namárië, in the sentence yéni ve lintë yuldar avánier = "long years have passed like swift draughts". This sentence nicely illustrates the meaning of this perfect form, for obviously the meaning is not that the yéni or "long years" have gone away to another place (sc. oantier!) They "long years" have simply passed, and now they are gone. Where the subject is more tangible than "long years", the forms vánë/avánië would imply that the subject has disappeared, is lost, has died off, etc.
 Indeed Tolkien indicated that the meaning of vánë/avánië was influenced by the related word vanwa "gone", "lost", "vanished", "past and over". It occurs twice in Namárië: Sí vanwa ná, Rómello vanwa, Valimar = "now lost, lost [to those] from the East, is Valimar". In WJ:366, Tolkien calls vanwa the "past participle" of auta-, though it obviously has no connection with the past or passive participles we have discussed earlier in this course (constructed with the ending -na or -ina). There is some evidence for an alternative, rarer participle in -nwa. However, for all intents and purposes, it matters little whether we call vanwa a participle or merely a verbal adjective (as does Nancy Martsch in her Basic Quenya). 

NOTE 1: As pointed out in Lesson Eight, it may well be that when Tolkien wrote Namárië, he thought of the word avánier as the perfect form of a verb listed in the Etymologies: vanya- "go, depart, disappear" (see the entry WAN). We should still accept Tolkien's post-LotR ideas about the verb auta-; it occurs, after all, in such a primary source as the Silmarillion. Interestingly, the adjectival word vanwa "gone, lost, over" is found already in the Qenya Lexicon of 1915 (QL:99) and was retained throughout all stages of Tolkien's development of Quenya. 

NOTE 2: In the Etymologies, entry GAWA, a quite distinct verb auta- "to invent" is listed. It would seem that the later verb auta- "go away" did not exist at the time Tolkien wrote Etym. If we nonetheless accept both verbs as valid within the same form of Quenya, we can distinguish between them in some tenses, for auta- "to invent" may perhaps have the simplest past tense form autanë. 

POSSESSIVE PRONOMINAL ENDINGS
We have already discussed a number of pronominal endings that may be suffixed to verbs to function as their subject: -nyë (very often shortened to -n) "I", -lyë "you", -ltë "they" and -lvë and -lmë "we" (inclusive and exclusive, respectively). Available material also includes -ngwë and -mmë as yet other endings for "we", and Tolkien eventually decided that they express dual "we", inclusive and exclusive. Furthermore, we have pointed out that Quenya pronouns usually do appear as endings, not so often as separate words as in English.
	Pronouns may also describe possession or belonging. Among the English possessive pronouns we have "my" (and "mine"), "your(s)", "our(s)", "their(s)".  Quenya has endings for these pronouns as well, though these endings are logically added to nouns, not to verbs. For instance, the ending for "my" is -nya. Thus, "my house" is coanya, while "my land" would be nórenya. The accent now falls on the syllable before the pronominal ending: co-A-nya, nó-RE-nya. All the pronominal endings begin in a consonant cluster, and in accordance with the normal rules, the stress falls on the second-to-last syllable when its vowel is followed by a group of consonants.
	Notice that the subject endings that we have already introduced, all end in the vowel -ë: -nyë "I", -lyë "you" etc. The corresponding possessive pronominal endings can be derived simply by changing the final vowel to -a, thus:

	-nyë "I" / -nya "my"
	-lyë "you" / -lya "your"
	-lvë "we" (pl. incl.) / -lva "our" 
	-lmë "we" (pl. excl.) / -lma "our" 
	-ngwë “we” (dual incl.) / -ngwa "our"
	-mmë "we two" (dual excl.) / -mma "our" 
-ltë "they" / -lta "their"

So besides coanya "my house" we can have coalya "your house" etc., whereas coalva and coalma would both translate as "our house" in English.
NOTE: As for the distinction between inclusive and exclusive "our", it would closely correspond to the distinction between inclusive and exclusive "we", explained in the previous lesson. Hence "our house" is expressed as coalva if the one(s) you are addressing is (are) also among the owners of the house and thus included in the word "our". Conversely, coalma is the word to use for "our house" if you are talking to a party that is not among the owners of the house and hence is not included in the word "our". Coangwa vs. coamma makes the same distinction where "our” only refers to two people.

Combining pronominal possessive endings with endings for case and number: Combining these two kinds of endings is what truly makes the total number of forms that a Quenya noun can assume explode. We are left with hundreds of possible combinations, but since they are just that – combinations – the endings involved are not nearly as numerous, and the load on the student's memory is not so great after all.
Here follows sambelya "your room" (sambë "room, chamber" + -lya "your") inflected for the all the numbers and cases so far discussed in this course. If this list appears somewhat complicated and daunting at first glance, the student will be relieved to discover that it is actually perfectly regular and in a way contains no new information at all: Just start from sambelya "your room" and treat it as you would any other noun in -a, adding the normal endings for number and case. One consequence of this is that the word now has a plural in -r (sambelyar "your rooms"), though sambë "room" occurring by itself would be an i-plural (sambi "rooms").

¤ NOMINATIVE/ACCUSATIVE: singular sambelya "your room", dual sambelyat "your couple of rooms", plural sambelyar "your rooms". (In the archaic form of Quenya that had a distinct accusative, we would presumably see the acc. sing. sambelyá and the acc. pl. sambelyai, but in this course, we don't use distinct accusative forms.)
¤ GENITIVE: singular sambelyo "of your room" (the genitive ending -o regularly displacing the final -a of sambelya even though the -a is here part of another ending), dual sambelyato "of your couple of rooms", plural sambelyaron "of your rooms".
¤ POSSESSIVE: singular sambelyava "of your room", dual ?sambelyatwa "of your couple of rooms", plural sambelyaiva "of your rooms". (While we here provide the same translations for the genitive and possessive cases, there are of course certain subtle shades of meaning that distinguish them.)
¤ DATIVE: sambelyan "for your room", dual sambelyant "for your couple of rooms", plural sambelyain "for your rooms".
¤ ALLATIVE: sambelyanna "to your room", dual sambelyanta "to your couple of rooms", plural sambelyannar "to your rooms".
¤ ABLATIVE: sambelyallo "from your room", dual sambelyalto "from your couple of rooms", plural sambelyallon (or, -llor) "from your rooms". (In the case of the allative and the ablative, the accent falls on the vowel in front of the case ending [e.g. sambelyAllo], in accordance with the normal stress rules – which apply for all the forms here listed.)

NOTE: Elendil's Declaration includes the words sinomë maruvan, ar hildinyar "in this place will I abide, and my heirs". From the example hildinyar "my heirs", one might argue that plural nouns with plural forms in -i (like hildi "heirs") should assume this ending before pronominal endings and secondary plural markers (like the -nya- and -r of hildinyar) are added. If so, "your rooms" should actually be sambilyar rather than sambelyar as we suggested above. This is possible, but the example hildinyar may have its own peculiarities; see below. 

Notice that the possessive pronominal ending is normally added first, and endings for number and case are added after it: "From your room" is therefore sambelyallo rather than sambellolya. For a Tolkien-made example, cf. the greeting Anar caluva tielyanna "the Sun shall shine upon your path" (UT:22, 51): The noun tië "path" here appears combined with the pronominal suffix -lya "your", and tielya "your path" is further expanded with the allative ending -nna "upon" to express "upon your path". (In some of Tolkien's posthumously published texts, the opposite order does occur, so perhaps "upon your path" could be tiennalya as well. But the order "pronominal ending first, case ending second" seems to be the most canonical system, consistently used in this course.)
	Another example of a noun equipped with both a pronominal ending and a case ending occurs in the most famous Elvish greeting of all, "a star shines on the hour of our meeting": Elen síla lúmenn' omentielvo. With this lesson we have finally presented all the grammar one needs to fully understand this sentence: Elen "a star", síla "shines" or rather "is shining" (the present/continuative tense of the verb sil-), lúmenn' or in full lúmenna "on (the) hour" (the noun lúmë "hour" + the allative ending -nna "on"), and finally the word that is relevant for our present discussion: omentielvo. This must be analyzed as an abstract noun (or gerund?) omentië "meeting" + the ending -lva for inclusive "our", and omentielva "our meeting" is then equipped with the genitive ending -o to express "of our meeting": Hence omentielvo, since the ending -o displaces a final -a.
	The first edition of LotR (1954-55) had omentielmo instead of omentielvo, which reading Tolkien introduced in the revised edition of 1966. As for the exact rationale underlying this change, somewhat contradictory and confusing information has been published. Tolkien apparently made up an "internal" explanation for this change, briefly referred to in one of Humphrey Carpenter's notes on the collection of Tolkien's letters that he edited (Letters:447, notes on letter #205):

The Elvish language Quenya makes a distinction in its dual inflexion, which turns on the number of persons involved; failure to understand this was, Tolkien remarked, 'a mistake generally made by mortals'. So in this case, Tolkien made a note that the 'Thain's Book of Minas Tirith', one of the supposed sources of The Lord of the Rings, had the reading omentielvo, but that Frodo's original (lost) manuscript probably had omentielmo; and that omentielvo is the correct form in the context.

Material since published indicates that Carpenter was wrong to say that the mistake had anything to do with "dual inflexion". The problem rather has to do with the distinction between inclusive and exclusive "we/our". Omentielmo would include an inclusive "our", but here "our" should be inclusive, for when saying "our meeting", Frodo obviously includes the Elves he is talking to in this "our". Indeed there early appeared another explanation of Frodo's little grammatical error – the mistake that was mercifully corrected in the "Thain's Book of Minas Tirith" by a later copyist. Dick Plotz, founder of the Tolkien Society of America and recipient of the Plotz Letter, made a mistake of his own which resulted in a garbled reading in certain American editions of LotR. Here is his confession, as quoted in the 1978 study Introduction to Elvish (editor Jim Allan), p. 20:

The original version was Elen síla lúmenn' omentielmo, which means, literally, 'A star shines on the hour of our (my, his, her, NOT your) meeting.' Tolkien, on reflection, changed this to omentielvo, 'of our (my, your, possibly his, her) meeting.' This was[,] of course, a proper change, and this is how it appeared in the earliest printings of the Ballantine edition. I, however, saw it as an obvious error, and prevailed upon Ballantine to CORRECT it! The "correction" introduced another error, since [the resulting reading] omentilmo, as far as I know, means nothing at all. Now they won't change it back, because it's too expensive. But omentielvo is correct. Sorry to have messed everyone up. 

(In current American editions, the error caused by Mr. Plotz' well-meaning, but misdirected efforts has long since been corrected.) So what Plotz is telling us, is that omentielvo contains an inclusive "our" (which is correct in the context), whereas the rejected form omentielmo contains an "our" which Tolkien finally decided was exclusive (and thus not appropriate here, for when Frodo says "our meeting", he obviously includes the Elves he is talking to in this "our"). This is not the explanation Carpenter hinted at in his note on Tolkien's letter #205, cited above, where the problem seems rather to be "dual inflexion" or lack of same. Yet Plotz implied that the explanation he offered was based on a letter he had received from Tolkien, though this letter is apparently no longer extant (too bad...both the community of Tolkien-linguists and Sotheby's would be very interested!)
	With the publication of Parma Eldalamberon #17 in 2007, all doubts were removed. Plotz was right. Tolkien’s notes on the samples of Elvish in LotR shows that he was dissatisfied with the published form omentielmo because he had revised the Quenya pronominal system so that this "our" would suddenly be exclusive rather than inclusive. Therefore "of our meeting" was changed to omentielvo in later editions. 
Thus plural inclusive "our" is indicated by the ending -lva (archaic -lwa), plural exclusive "our" has the ending -lma, whereas the endings for dual "our" are -ngwa (inclusive) and -mma (exclusive). (VT49:16) This corresponds perfectly to the endings for "we" used in the previous lesson: -lvë (older -lwë) and -lmë for plural "we", inclusive and exclusive, and -ngwë and -mmë for dual "we", inclusive and exclusive.

Adding pronominal endings to nouns ending in a consonant: To avoid impossible consonant clusters, an extra vowel -e- may be inserted before the pronominal ending where necessary. As we remember, this extra vowel may also turn up before case endings. Combining atar "father" with -lya "your" to express "your father" would probably produce atarelya (since **atarlya is not a possible Quenya word). "Our father" is attested as ataremma in Tolkien's translation of the Lord's Prayer (VT43:8; later versions curiously read átaremma with an initial long vowel, which is perhaps a contraction of a Ataremma "o our Father"). This form belongs to the earlier conceptual phase, when the ending for exclusive "our" was still -mma instead of -lma as it later became, but it should be noted that Tolkien inserted -e- as a connecting vowel between the noun and the ending. If he had revised his Lord's Prayer translation in the last years of his life, the first word would presumably have become atarelma (or átarelma) with a new ending, but the same connecting vowel before it.
It may be that if the noun is plural, one would use i as the connecting vowel, if pronominal endings and case endings behave in the same way. Cf. Tolkien's form elenillor for "from stars". Thus, "your stars" might similarly be elenilyar, and "our (excl.) fathers" should evidently be atarilmar rather than atarelmar. (Of course, it is primarily the final -r which functions as a plural marker here, so there can be no misunderstanding regarding the number anyway.) It may be that hildinyar "my heirs" from Elendil's Declaration is an example of this, if the noun "heir" is ?hil with a stem hild-, hence pl. hildi.
	However, the ending -nya "my" seems to be somewhat special. Where a connecting vowel is required, it apparently always prefers -i-, whether the noun it is added to is singular or plural. It seems that this connecting vowel reflects the vowel of the primitive root producing the Eldarin 1st person pronouns, namely NI2 (listed in the Etymologies and simply defined "I"). Fíriel's Song has Anarinya, not **Anarenya, for "my Sun". Similarly, "my father" is atarinya (LR:61) rather than ?atarenya; we cannot know whether the latter form is valid at all. The (nominative) plural "my fathers" would of course be atarinyar, so the singular and plural remain distinct. In the same fashion, the singular form of hildinyar "my heirs" is hildinya "my heir" with the same connecting vowel i, since it is always preferred by the ending -nya. (The form hildinya was hypothetical when I wrote the first version of this course, but it has now turned up in a Tolkien manuscript: VT44:36.) In the case of another ending, like -lma "our", we might conceivably see a variation between hildelma (?) "our heir" and hildilmar "our heirs"; in the latter case, the -i is the normal nominative plural ending used as a connecting vowel. (The Etymologies, entry KHIL, lists precisely such a plural form hildi – there glossed "followers", close enough to "heirs" in meaning.)
	It has been suggested that the ending -nya, added to a noun in -ë, would also displace this -ë with -i- (much like the plural ending -i displaces a final -ë when added to a noun). However, one Tolkien example that was published in the summer of 2000 demonstrates that this is not so: VT41:11 has órenya, not **órinya, for "my heart" (órë: "heart" in the sense of "inner mind"). According to the system we are trying to sketch, even the plural "my hearts" would be órenyar rather than ?órinyar, since órë ends in -ë and thus requires no connecting vowel before suffixes anyway. Cf. the Plotz Letter: lassennar, not **lassinnar, as the plural allative of lassë "leaf" – though the nominative pl. is lassi. In a similar fashion, we would probably see lassenya "my leaf" vs. lassenyar "my leaves" (hardly **lassinyar). The connecting vowel -i- only turns up where plural nouns ending in a consonant are to receive endings; singular nouns have -e- instead. The only exception seems to be the ending -nya "my" which prefers -i- whether the noun it is added to is singular or plural. (If it is plural, this will be sufficiently indicated by the secondary endings for number and/or case that are added after the ending -nya.)
NOTE 1: Of course, we must assume that nouns in -ë that have stem-forms in -i- would appear in the latter form when endings are to be added. So if lírë (líri-) means "song", "my song" would evidently be lírinya (plural lírinyar "my songs"). But this is actually a quite different matter, for here we would evidently see líri- before any suffix, for pronoun or case (lírilya "your song", genitive lírio "of a song", etc.)
NOTE 2: Since I wrote the above, more relevant sources have become available. In VT49:17, certain endings for "their" are listed in the form -(i)lta, and according to the editor, "the forms with i are used after a consonant". The example mélamarimma "Our Home" from PE17:109 also uses -i - as a connecting vowel before a pronominal ending. Contrast the use of -e- before the very same ending in one of the examples considered above: Átaramma "our Father". (Both sources predate the revision that changed the ending for plural inclusive "our" from -mma to -lma.) It may be that in some variants of Quenya, Tolkien wanted to use -i- as the universal connecting vowel before possessive pronominal endings, where one is needed. But here we will use both -e- and -i-, according to the system outlined above.

In some instances, contracted forms are used instead of inserting any connecting vowel. UT:193 provides the form aranya, untranslated but apparently meaning "my king" (Erendis uses this word when addressing the King of Númenor). This is apparently aran "king" + -nya "my", the impossible form **arannya being simplified to aranya. Possibly ?araninya would also be acceptable Quenya, but when the noun ends in the same consonant as the pronominal ending begins in, it may be permissible to let the last consonant of the noun and the first consonant of the ending merge – a phenomenon also observed where case endings are involved. (Cf. mindonnar rather than mindoninnar as the pl. allative of mindon "tower"; perhaps "my towers" would be mindonyar rather than mindoninyar.)

Especially where the ending -nya "my" is concerned, contracted forms may turn up even where no contraction would be "necessary" to achieve a phonologically permissible Quenya word. The High-elven word for "son" is yondo, so "my son" might simply be yondonya, and there is little reason to doubt that this is a valid form. Yet in LR:61 Elendil addresses his son as yonya, apparently a contracted variant of yondonya. Perhaps yonya would be used for "my son" primarily when addressing the son concerned. If so, it would parallel another example: One Quenya word for "child" is hína, or hina with a short vowel – the latter only being used when "addressing a (young) child" (WJ:403). Tolkien went on to note that this hina, used as a form of address, often appeared in the form hinya "my child" – the latter being contracted from hinanya (still WJ:403). 

Summary of Lesson Fourteen: The Quenya allative case has the ending -nna (plural -nnar) and expresses the basic idea of "to, toward", e.g. ciryanna "to a ship". In certain contexts, this case may also express "on, upon" or "into". The ablative case has the ending -llo (plural -llon, or alternatively -llor) and signifies "from", e.g. ciryallo "from a ship"; sometimes the ablative may also imply "out of". The dual forms of the allative and ablative endings are -nta and -lto, respectively (at least in the case of nouns with nominative dual forms in -t; it may be that nouns with nominative dual forms in -u would rather have the basic endings -nna or -llo following this vowel). If a noun ending in a consonant is to receive the case ending for allative or ablative, a connecting vowel (in the singular -e-, in the plural -i-) may be inserted before the case ending to avoid an impossible consonant cluster; otherwise, a contracted form is used (e.g. Rómello "from the East", for Rómen-llo). – The verb equë is a peculiar form that is not inflected for tense and rarely receives endings of any kind; it means "said" or "says" and is used to introduce quotations where the subject (which follows the verb equë and precedes the quotation) is a proper name or an independent pronoun. – The verb auta- "pass, go away, leave" has rather surprising past and perfect forms: oantë or oantië if the verb refers to physically leaving one place (and going to another), but vánë and avánië if the verb refers to disappearing, being lost, or dying off. – Quenya possessive pronouns are normally expressed as endings added to the relevant noun (the thing that is owned). These suffixes include -nya "my", -lya "your", -lta "their", -lva "our" (inclusive), -lma "our" (exclusive), -ngwa "our" (dual inclusive), -mma "our" (dual exclusive). The endings for "we" underwent certain revisions in the sixties, but this seems to be the final resolution. Notice that these possessive endings correspond to the subject pronominal endings suffixed to verbs, the former ending in -a whereas the latter end in -ë.. Where required, connecting vowels may be fitted in before the noun and the pronominal ending, probably by much the same rules that apply to the case endings -nna and -llo, except that the ending -nya "my" seems to consistently prefer the connecting vowel -i-. Once a noun has received a possessive pronominal ending, this noun may be further inflected for number or case just like a regular noun in -a would be.

VOCABULARY
We have now exhausted the basic numbers 1-12. When I first wrote this course, we knew little about higher numbers. At least a little more information has now turned up, and I hope to present it in an appendix to this course. But here we will now present some ordinal numbers – showing order or position in a series, like English "first", "second", "third" etc. 

minya "first" (cf. the number minë, "one" as the first of a series, and the adjectival ending -ya. The original name of the First Clan of the Elves was Minyar, literally "Firsts", though the Noldor later called them Vanyar or "Fair Ones" instead [WJ:380, 382-383].)
equë "say(s), said" (tense-less verb introducing quotations)
auta- "to leave, to go/pass away" (past tense oantë and perfect oantië, alternatively vánë and avánië, the latter two forms referring to disappearing or dying off as explained above).  The "past participle" of auta- is said to be vanwa "lost, gone, passed, vanished" – but this word may be treated almost as an independent adjective.
menta- "to send"
ruc- "to feel fear or horror"; "to fear" (said to be constructed with "from" of the object feared, presumably meaning that what would be the direct object in English appears in the ablative case in Quenya)
ambo "hill"
mindon "(great) tower" (cf. the Mindon Eldaliéva or "Great Tower of the Eldalië" mentioned in the Silmarillion. The first syllable of mindon is related to the number minë "one", since a mindon is an isolated tower, not part of a larger structure.)
Númen "West" (cf. Númenor, Númenórë "Westernesse" or "West-land": núme(n)-nórë). It seems that the names of the basic directions are treated as proper names, capitalized and not requiring the article; cf. Rómello in Namárië (which Tolkien translated "from the East" even though there is no i in the Quenya text).
sambë "room, chamber" (Sindarin sam, samm-; cf. the Sammath Naur or "Chambers of Fire" inside Mount Doom)
yondo "son"
haira "far, remote"
et "out" (followed by ablative to express "out of")

In addition to our traditional list of twelve new glosses we will also introduce a couple of proper names, required in these exercises. In accordance with our established policy we will avoid explicit references to Tolkien's mythos in these exercises, so no proper names coined by him will appear here. Yet we can readily coin new names using his principles. The ending -(n)dil often occurs in masculine names and signifies "friend" or "lover", e.g. Eärendil "Sea-friend" or Elendil "Star-friend" (but also implying "Elf-friend" since the words elen and Elda are ultimately related and were even confused by the Edain: WJ:410). So we can venture, say, Calandil "Friend of Light". As for feminine names, one observed pattern is that an adjective in -a can be turned into a fem. name by changing the ending to -ë (not to be confused with the plural form of the adjective). For instance, one of the queens of Númenor was called Ancalimë, transparently formed from the superlative form ancalima "brightest, exceedingly bright". (Similarly, masculine names can be made by changing the ending -a to -o or -on, cf. Sauron vs. the adjective saura "foul, putrid" – one suddenly understands why the Dark Lord didn't permit his servants to use the name the Elves had given him!) Starting from a suitable adjective like nessima "youthful", we can derive a plausible woman's name Nessimë "Youthful One". However, the meaning of the names Calandil and Nessimë is of no importance for the exercises.

EXERCISES 

1. Translate into English: 

A. Lelyuvalvë i mindonello i coanna.
B. Ilyë Eldar avánier Ambarello.
C. I Naucor utúlier i orontillon; elendieltë i coannar ar súcar limpelva.
D. I úmië ohtari mapuvar i malta lielvava mentien harmalvar haira nórenna.  [Lielvava = lielva + case ending -va!]
E. I nís oantë coanyallo ar lendë i sírenna.
F. I minya cirya tuluva Númello.
G. Quen rucë i rávillon, an amátieltë i aran lielmo, ar úvaltë auta nórelmallo.
H. Equë Nessimë Calandilenna: "Yondonya avánië sambenyallo!"

2. Translate into Quenya: 

I. Calandil said to Nessimë: "Your son has gone out of the house, for all the boys went to the hill."
J. From heaven [Menel: the sky] the sun is giving light to our (inclusive) world, and the darkness has passed.
K. Calandil said to the evil king: "You have sent your warriors to the tower to find my sons. My thrall will protect the boys, and they will not be lost!"
L. The man having [arwa] the ships wanted to leave, and all the ships went away west[wards].
M. We (exclusive) went to a two-room apartment [dual of sambë!], and the man from the hills gave your son a great sword, saying [quétala]: "The sword comes from a remote land, out of the outermost West." ("Outermost": use the superlative of haira.) YYY
N. All trees died and disappeared from our (incl.) land, and Calandil and Nessimë said to the people: "We (dual excl.) will send our (dual excl.) thralls to find a land with [or, 'having' = arwa] many trees." YYY
O. The maiden said to the animal: "I fear [/I'm afraid of] your big horns (dual)."
P. I went to our (incl.) room to gather my things, for I wanted to give my brother my first book; the book lay [/was lying] on the floor. YYY

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
involving Quenya nouns combining pronominal endings with suffixes for number and/or case 

(Students may check the keys to the exercises above before proceeding to these exercises.) The exercises above include several examples of nouns with both pronominal endings and case endings, e.g. lielvava "of our people". A skilled Quenyaist would be able to extract the meaning of such forms at a glance, indeed perceiving a single word like ostolvallon as something like a single meaning, "from our cities", without having to consciously break this down into osto-lva-llo-n "city-our-from-plural". Of course, a skilled Quenyaist would also be able to readily produce such words, combining the relevant endings without hesitation.

3. Translate the following list of single Quenya words into English phrases. 
NOTE: In the keys to this exercise, the following simplified "equivalents" are used: genitives and possessive-adjectival forms are all turned into "of"-constructions, dative forms are represented as prepositional phrases in "for", whereas allative and ablative forms are represented as phrases involving the prepositions "to" and "from", respectively. The same system is used in the English-to-Quenya exercises below, with specification of whether "of" is to be rendered as a genitive (gen.) or a possessive-adjectival (poss.) form.

a) Coalvallon
b) Hroanyan
c) Hroalvain
d) Lambelvar
e) Nórelyanna
f) Natilmar 
g) Aranelyallo
h) Mólinyo
i) Mólinyaron
j) Ostolvannar
k) Lielmo
l) Yondolyava
m) Sambelmat
n) Sambenyant
o) Sambelyato
p) Sambelvanta
q) Sambelyalto
r) Lienyava
s) Yondolvaiva
t) Tárilyan
u) Lielmaiva
v) Nerinyaiva
w) Nerinyava
x) Seldonyain
y) Ciryalmalto
z) Yondommo

4. Translate into single Quenya words ("of" = genitive or possessive as further specified, "for" = dative, "to" = allative, "from" = ablative):

a) To your hills
b) For our (excl.) peace
c)Your two-volume book (use a dual form of parma)
d) To your tower / To your towers (translate the sg. and pl. separately)
e) Of (poss.) our (excl.) queen
f) Of (poss.) my sisters
g) From my sister
h) Of (gen.) our (incl.) gifts
i) Of (gen.) our (incl.) gold
j) For our (incl.) joy
k) Of (gen.) your wine
l) From your world
m) Of (gen.) my sun
n) For my king
o) Of (poss.) our (excl.) son
p) Of (gen.) our (excl.) cups
q) For your pair of birds (use a dual form of aiwë)
r) To our (excl.) double walls (use a dual form of ramba)
s) From our (dual incl.) double walls (same) YYY
t) From your lands
u) Of (gen.) my [two twin] sisters (use a dual form of seler, sell-)
v) Of (gen.) our (excl.) treasures
w) To our (incl.) horses
x) For our (dual excl.) house
y) For my brother
z) To our (excl.) trees

LESSON FIFTEEN
The ending -rya and more about possessive pronominal endings. The Locative case. Relative sentences. Third person details.

MORE ABOUT POSSESSIVE PRONOMINAL ENDINGS
(plus a slightly digressive inquiry into the true nature of the combinations ly, ny, ry, ty)

In the previous lesson we introduced a series of possessive pronominal endings that can be added to nouns, like -nya "my", -lya "your" etc. When I first wrote this course, I noted at this point that "only one of the attested pronominal endings remains to be mentioned: -rya." Our knowledge of the Quenya pronoun table has happily improved since then, but the ending -rya still needs special attention.
The ending occurs twice in Namárië. The first time it is followed by the genitive ending, regularly producing the form -ryo: The relevant word if ómaryo, translated "of her voice", the genitive form of ómarya "her voice". The word óma "voice" is attested by itself elsewhere (Etym., entry OM; VT39:16).
The second time -rya occurs in Namárië, it also has another ending following it, in this case the dual marker -t: the word máryat is translated "her hands", referring to a natural pair of hands (the word má "hand" is also attested by itself). Anyhow, the ending -rya is seen to mean "her", and from the Namarië examples it is clear that it can be used and combined with other endings just like any of the other pronominal suffixes we have already discussed and practiced (samberya "her room", samberyan "for her room", samberyanna "to her room", samberyallo "from her room", samberyo and samberyava "of her room"...and so on with plural and dual forms: samberyar "her rooms", samberyat "her couple of rooms/her two-room apartment", etc. etc.)
For thirty years, from The Fellowship of the Ring (with Namárië in it) appeared in 1954 until Christopher Tolkien published The War of the Jewels in 1994, "her" was the sole known meaning of the ending -rya. In the meantime, we had one more example of -rya = "her" in the Markirya poem, which was published in The Monsters and the Critics in 1983 (though in Markirya, "her" does not refer to a person, but to a ship). But when WJ appeared in 1994, it became evident that the suffix -rya actually covers not only "her", but also "his": Coarya is shown to be the Quenya for "the house of him" or "his house" (WJ:369, there spelt köarya). Of course, the form coarya as such could just as well mean "her house", and conversely the Namárië forms máryat, ómaryo could in another context mean "his hands" and "of his voice": We have to conclude that Quenya simply does not make a distinction between "his" and "her". Indeed -rya seem to cover "its" as well: Notice that in one phrase in the Markirya poem, ringa súmaryassë "in her cold bosom", the reference is actually to a ship, so "in its cold bosom" would seem to be an equally appropriate translation.
There is more to be learnt from the two examples of -rya in Namárië. Notice the dual form máryat "her (pair of) hands". As described in Lesson Three, Quenya developed a system whereby -t is the normal dual ending, ordinarily replaced by -u only where euphonic concerns demand this, as when the word that is to receive a dual ending already includes t or d (Letters:427, footnote). But in Lesson Three we also argued from the example peu "(pair of) lips" that body-parts occurring in pairs occur in "fossilized" dual forms, always taking the ending -u – "reflecting the older system in which only -u denoted a natural or logical pair". Nonetheless, the student may also remember a parenthetical warning to the effect that "the other ending -t may however be used if certain other endings intrude before the dual ending itself; we will return to this in a later lesson". It is time to have a closer look on this.
Based on the example peu "pair of lips" I argued in earlier versions of this course that maybe the simple dual "pair of hands” would be mau. However, the form mát has since been published (PE17:161, VT47:6), and here we do indeed see the same dual ending as in the longer form máryat "her (two) hands”. So apparently it is not always possible to predict which dual ending, -u or -t, is preferred. 
One may however suspect that following a possessive ending, the dual ending is always -t.. Though the dual "(pair of) lips" is peu, we can assume that "her (two) lips" would be constructed by starting from the singular form pé "lip" and adding -rya for "his/her" and then -t for dual number, so that as a parallel to máryat we would see péryat. (It then follows that the genitive is péryato, the dative péryant, the allative péryanta, the ablative péryalto, etc.) Aldu may be the normal dual "pair of trees", but "her pair of trees" would perhaps be constructed from the singular alda with the appropriate suffixes, producing aldaryat. Even so, we may suspect that the dual ending -u could function as a connecting vowel where one is needed – just as the plural ending -i is known to function in certain instances. The word for "foot" is tál with stem tal-, so perhaps the dual "(pair of) feet" is talu. Adding a possessive pronominal ending to tál, tal- would however require a connecting vowel before we can even think about adding -t as a dual marker at the end of the word. Should "my pair of feet" perhaps be something like talunyat with double dual markers, -u- and -t, just like there would apparently be double plural markers (-i- and -r) in a plural word like (say) talilmar "our feet"? If so, this would be an exception to the apparent rule that the dual marker -u is not used before a possessive pronominal suffix. As usual, we lack attested examples, but since Elendil's Declaration indicates that "my heirs" is hildinyar, it would not be wildly implausible to assume that a corresponding dual form would be something very much like hildunyat. (Or maybe the rule that -nya "my" prefers -i- as its connecting vowel would prevail, producing hildinyat, but we might still see -u- as a connecting vowel before other pronominal endings, e.g. hilduryat "her pair of heirs".)

Another thing to be learnt from the Namárië examples máryat "her hands" and ómaryo "of her voice" has to do with whether ry here counts as a consonant cluster (r + y) or as a single consonant: palatalized r. What we learn is however somewhat paradoxical. We touched on these problems already in Lesson One, but a new inquiry may be in place here, since the combinations in -y (like ry, ly, ny, ty) occur in several of the possessive pronominal endings. Tolkien repeatedly indicated that ómaryo is accented on the a in the second-to-last syllable (in one of his Namárië transcripts in RGEO, he indicated all major and minor stresses in this song, and we also have two or three actual recordings where he is heard to use this accentuation). For ómaryo to be accented in such a way, ry must count as a consonant cluster, not as a single consonant. If ry were a single consonant, the normal rules dictate that the stress would not land on the vowel before it, but on the third syllable from the end.
	Yet we have repeatedly referred to another observed rule of Quenya phonology: there cannot be a long vowel in front of a consonant cluster. Thus the long vowel of má "hand" is logically shortened in the plural allative form mannar "into...hands", attested in Fíriel's Song. **Mánnar would not be a possible Quenya word. So if ry is also a consonant cluster as we thought we had just established, why is á not shortened in the form máryat? Why don't we see ?maryat as a parallel to mannar?
Frankly, I can't think of any obvious explanation. Apparently we must simply accept that ry – as well as ly, ny, ty – count as consonant clusters for the purpose of stress, but a preceding long vowel does not have to be shortened. Thus we would have márya "his/her hand", mánya "my hand" and málya "your hand" with the preceding long vowel intact. Before the other attested pronominal suffixes, it would have to be shortened, since these endings unquestionably introduce a following consonant cluster: malva and malma = "our hand" (inclusive and exclusive). **Málva, **málma would hardly be possible Quenya words. Such variations would closely parallel a couple of attested forms we have referred to earlier, though they involve subject endings (-mmë for "we" and -nyë for "I") rather than the pronominal possessive endings added to nouns: The exclamation vá signifying refusal has its long vowel shortened before the cluster mm in vammë "we won't", but the long vowel is seem to persist in ványë "I won't" (WJ:371 – later Tolkien changed the ending -mmë to -lmë, as discussed in the previous lesson). So we can tell that while mm is unquestionably a cluster (as the later lm would also be), ny may well count as a single consonant – palatalized n like Spanish ñ.
There are only a handful of nouns that can be affected by these variations in vowel-length, words of a single syllable that end in a long vowel: Besides má "hand", only cú "bow", pé "lip", ré "day" (24 hours) and lú "time, occasion" spring to mind – if we don't bring in Tolkien's early "Qenya" material as well. Of course, the long vowels of these words would also be shortened before case endings introducing a following consonant cluster, as indicated by the plural allative mannar "into hands" in Fíriel's Song. But "into your hands" would evidently be mályannar, or mályanta as a dual form – since ly, ny, ry, ty do not count as consonant clusters for this purpose.
On the other hand, there is also some evidence suggesting that these combinations should be taken as clusters. In a Namárië manuscript reproduced in RGEO:76, Tolkien split the word ómaryo into its constituent syllables and seemingly indicated that -ar- and -yo are separate syllables – as if ry is a genuine consonant cluster after all, not just palatalized r. (Sure enough, r would probably be palatalized before y, but if y is also to be sounded as a distinct consonant, we would still have a cluster.) Likewise, Tolkien split the words fanyar "clouds" and ilyë "all" into fan/yar, il/yë. If ry, ny, and ly, and by implication ty as well, really are to be taken as consonant clusters when they occur in the middle of words, this would explain the observed stress patterns. But then we are left with the problem of why long vowels are not shortened before these combinations. Luckily, these seeming inconsistencies cause no problems to people trying to write in Quenya, since we can simply imitate the system or systems that Tolkien used.
Even so, I haven't bored the student with the paragraphs above only as an academic exercise, for there remains the problem of how ly, ny, ry, ty occurring in the middle of words should really be pronounced: Are we dealing with single, unitary palatalized consonants, long palatalized consonants, or single consonants followed by a distinct y? It seems that we can't reach any definite answer based on what has been published so far. When Tolkien in RGEO:76 syllabified fanyar as fan/yar, it seems to demonstrate that he at least can't have the pronunciation **fañ-ar in mind, though palatals like ny and ty must always be pronounced as single, unitary consonants when they occur initially (as Quenya cannot have consonant clusters at the beginning of words: SD:416-417). The choice apparently stands between fañ-ñar (with a long or double palatal ñ) and fan-yar or rather fañ-yar (a distinct y being sounded). In either case, a word like atarinya "my father" (that is, atariñña or atariñya) would then logically be accented on the i according to the normal rules. Why this combination ny, as well as ly, ry, ty, apparently lack the power to make a preceding long vowel become short remains a mystery. If they are pronounced with a distinct y, as I tend to think, these combinations may not be counted as regular consonant clusters because y is a "semi-vowel" rather than a quite "proper" consonant.
Update, 2007: New material published since I wrote the above has unfortunately done little to clarify the issue. But we now have some examples where Tolkien surprisingly seems to tolerate a long vowel in front of a consonant cluster: in PE17:161 we have mánta for "their hand". (Here Tolkien uses -nta rather than -lta for “their”, just like he sometimes uses -ntë rather than -ltë for "their".)  Could it be that this is only an orthographic issue? Maybe this is actually pronounced manta with a short vowel, but is written mánta to preserve for the eye the contact with the endingless form má? And if so, maybe a word like máryat is also really pronounced maryat? Then there would be no objections to regarding ly, ny, ry, ty in the middle of words as consonant clusters.

Possessive pronominal endings used with infinitives: In Lesson Ten we described how infinitive forms of verbs have an extended form in -ta which is used when the infinitive is to receive a suffix denoting an object pronoun: thus carë (cari-) "to do", but caritas "to do it" or "doing it". To such an extended infinitive it is also possible to add a pronominal ending denoting the subject of the verbal action. Our attested example is caritalya(s), which Tolkien translated "your doing (it)" (VT41:17). "You" is here the subject of the verbal action (that is, the "doing"), and this is expressed as a possessive pronominal ending -lya "your". A second pronominal ending, denoting the object, may then be added at the end of the word: caritalyas, "your doing it", tiritanyat "my watching them". Such a phrase can probably be used as a noun, functioning, for instance, as the subject or object of a sentence. Perhaps "I want you to watch them" would be expressed something like merin tiritalyat, literally "I want your watching them". The object of the infinitive could certainly be an independent word as well, e.g. merin tiritalya i seldor, "I want you to watch the boys" ("I want your watching the boys").
	By their meaning, such infinitives would come very close to gerunds, and these Quenya forms in -ta are probably meant to be related to Sindarin gerunds (ending in -ad or -ed). Indeed we must assume that regular gerunds (in -ië) may also receive possessive pronominal endings, e.g. tulierya "his coming" (tulië "coming"). It is, however, uncertain whether a second pronominal ending denoting the object may then be suffixed (?carieryas "his doing it").

THE LOCATIVE CASE
In connection with the forms mir, minna "into" we have referred to the Quenya preposition mi "in", which is sometimes combined with the definite article to produce the form (mi + i =) mí "in the". It occurs in Namárië, in the phrase mí oromardi, translated "in the high halls" (so in RGEO:66, at least – the text in LotR has mi with a short vowel, though this should be a simple "in" with no article incorporated, and indeed the translation provided in LotR goes simply "in lofty halls").
	Yet Quenya often dispenses with prepositions, using special case forms instead, as when "to, towards" is normally expressed by the allative ending -nna, whereas "from" is usually expressed by means of the ablative ending -llo – though Quenya does have separate prepositions that could express the same meanings. It should be no surprise, then, that Quenya instead of using a preposition like mi often prefers a specific case form in order to express the meaning of "in" (or "on, upon"). The relevant case is called the locative, marked by the ending -ssë (probably inspired by the Finnish ending -ssa, -ssä of similar meaning). For instance, "in a house" can be expressed as coassë, "in the house" could be i coassë, "in my house" would be coanyassë, etc. (Of course, the stress moves to the vowel immediately preceding the case ending, since the ending begins in a consonant cluster.) The locative can refer to "location" in time as well as space: In an early version of the greeting "a star shines on the hour of our meeting", Tolkien had the noun lúmë "hour" appearing in the locative case (lúmessë, RS:324).

NOTE 1: Students should notice that the ending -ssë is not always a locative marker, meaning "in" or "on" wherever it occurs. Sometimes -ssë functions as an abstract ending. We have already introduced the noun alassë "joy, merriment". Entulessë is attested as the name of a ship, said to mean "Return" (UT:171; entul- would be the verb "to re-come" = "to return"). Caimassë could be the locative form of caima "bed", but caimassë is also used as a noun "lying in bed" = "sickness", and this is even the basis of the adjective caimassëa "bedridden, sick" (Etym., entry KAY). Sometimes -ssë as a noun ending is not abstract, but it is seen to maintain the connotations of locality that it also has when used as a locative ending: The noun aicassë "mountain peak" is derived from the adjective aica "sharp", so the term aicassë basically refers to some kind of 'sharp place'. The ending -ssë also turns up in the names of a couple of the months of the Elvish calendar, listed in LotR Appendix D: Víressë and Lótessë, roughly corresponding to April and May. Lótessë certainly connects with lótë "flower" and would seem to mean essentially "In Flower", a fitting description of the month of May. – Whether the locative ending -ssë could or should be attached to a noun already ending in -ssë is uncertain. Lótessessë does seem like a rather cumbersome way of expressing "in May", and aicassessë for "on a mountain peak" is not much better. Instead of adding the locative ending to nouns of such a shape, it may be better to use the preposition mi "in": Mi Lótessë, mi aicassë. But in the Plotz Declension, Tolkien does seem to indicate that lassessë would be an acceptable locative form of lassë "leaf". Yet the preposition mi would always be a valid alternative to the ending.

NOTE 2: As we remember, the allative case in -nna does not always denote motion towards something, but may also express the idea of "on, upon". In some contexts, it would perhaps be permissible to use either the locative or the allative, resulting in pretty much the same meaning (caitan caimanyassë = "I lie in my bed" / caitan caimanyanna "I lie on my bed"). Yet Tolkien sometimes translated a Quenya locative form using the English preposition "upon". An example of this is ciryassë "upon a ship" (MC:216, there spelt kiryasse); cf. also mahalmassen below.

	In the plural, the simple locative suffix -ssë is expanded with the same plural element -n that is also seen in the plural forms of the endings for genitive (-on) and ablative (-llon). Thus, plural locative forms end in -ssen. The plural locative of mahalma "throne" occurs in Cirion's Oath, where the Valar are referred to as i hárar mahalmassen mi Númen, "those who sit upon [the] thrones in the West".
	The dual locative ending is formed by substituting the dual element t for the first of the s's of the ending -ssë. The resulting ending -tsë is not attested in any actual Quenya composition by Tolkien, but he listed it in the Plotz letter, so presumably we can have forms like sambetsë "in a two-room apartment" or ciryanyatsë "on my [two sister] ships". (These words may be seen as the simplest dual forms sambet, ciryanyat with the locative ending -ssë attached, though it is simplified to -së to avoid the impossible combination **-tssë.)
	Of course, endings like -ssë, -ssen, -tsë can never be added directly to a noun ending in a consonant without producing impossible consonant clusters. In the original version of this course, I wrote regarding this:

Lacking attested examples, we can only assume that connecting vowels would be fitted in by much the same rules as the ones that are seen to apply in the allative and ablative cases: -e- is used as a connecting vowel in the singular, whereas plural forms have -i-. Hence presumably elenessë "in a star", elenissen "in stars". The dual "in a couple of stars" might prefer the connecting vowel -e- (?elenetsë). Contracted forms may also turn up, e.g. elessë for elen-ssë. The directions Formen, Hyarmen, Númen, Rómen = North, South, West, East would almost certainly surrender their final -n in the locative, just as they are seen to do in the allative and ablative cases. Hence probably Formessë "in the North", etc. Fíriel's Song has Númessier for "they are in the west". This strange form seems to include the ending -ië "is", pl. -ier "(they) are" which Tolkien probably dropped later. Even so, an underlying locative form Númessë "in the West" must in any case be presupposed here. Since the noun Númen "West" also appears in the shorter form Númë, we cannot be certain that a final -n has dropped out here, but this locative form may be noted all the same. 

(Unquote myself.) Since I wrote this, new relevant evidence has turned up. Cemessë "on earth" (VT43:16) as one locative form of cemen "earth" could be seen as a certain example of a final -n dropping out before the ending -ssë . However, cemessë may actually be meant to have evolved from cemen-së, with a shorter version of the locative ending, ns in this instance becoming ss by assimilation. In his various drafts for a Quenya version of the Lord's Prayer, Tolkien is seen to be struggling with the question of what the locative forms of menel "heaven, sky" and cemen "earth" should be. One version has menelzë and cemenzë, the locative ending -ssë being shortened to -së and voiced to -zë by contact with the voiced consonants l, n preceding it (VT43:9). However, forms like menelzë, cemenzë cannot belong to the kind of Quenya used in Middle-earth in the Third Age; in Appendix E to LotR we are told that "the z-sound did not occur in contemporary Quenya". Tolkien eventually settled on the forms meneldë and cemendë (VT43:11, 12), apparently suggesting a development ls > lz > ld and similarly ns > nz > nd. (Whether this would render obsolete the form cemessë, apparently presupposing a development ns > ss instead, is of course unclear.) Nouns ending in the consonants -l and -n may thus have locative forms in -dë (in the plural presumably -den, corresponding to the regular ending -ssen). Nouns in -s and -t may simply have locative forms in -së (compare the dual locatives in -tsë, which is simply the dual ending -t + the shortened locative ending -së). Phonetically, words in -r would be excepted to have locative forms in -ssë (e.g. Ambassë as the locative form of Ambar "world"), since the group rs historically becomes ss (for instance, the name Nessa is said to descend from neresā, evidently via an intermediate form nersā: WJ:416).
However, there also seems to be a much simpler system: one may use the full ending -ssë "everywhere", slipping in a connecting vowel -e- before it where it would otherwise follow a consonant. In one of the Lord's Prayer versions, Tolkien in the phrase "our Father in heaven" translated "in heaven" by the adjectival form menelessëa, which is clearly based on menelessë as yet another locative form of menel (VT43:9, 13). This use of -e- as a connecting vowel before -ssë corresponds to one of my suggestions in the original version of this course. So as the locative form of a noun like elen "star" there may be at least three more or less equally valid alternatives: elessë (dropping a final consonant before the ending -ssë, or -ssë may be considered an assimilated form of -nsë here), elenessë (slipping in a connecting vowel -e- before the locative ending, probably -i- in the plural) or elendë (using the ending -dë for older -zë, in turn from -së). Writers may pick their choice, but generally one of the two latter alternatives would probably be the best solution. For the sake of clarity, the locative form of a noun like Ambar should probably be Ambaressë rather than (Ambar-së >) Ambassë, which could just as well be formed from a noun **Amba.
Would nouns with dual forms in -u also form their dual locatives in -tsë, or does this ending occur only where we are dealing with nouns that have nominative dual forms in -t? We may well wonder what the locative form of Aldu "Two Trees" would be. Aldussë with the simplest ending -ssë, because duality is already sufficiently expressed by -u? Aldatsë formed from the uninflected form alda? Aldutsë with double dual markers, -u and -t-? Personally I lean toward Aldussë, but I would like to see a Tolkien-made example.

The locative ending(s) can of course be combined with possessive pronominal endings just like the other case endings we have discussed. As mentioned above, the Markirya poem has ringa súmaryassë for "in her cold bosom" (ringa "cold", súma "bosom"; the reference is to the "bosom" of a ship).

RELATIVE SENTENCES
In LotR, there is one single example of a Quenya locative. The ending -ssen for plural locative occurs in Namárië, in the phrase Vardo tellumar..., yassen tintilar i eleni = "Varda's domes..., wherein [or, in which] the stars twinkle..."
	The word ya "which", here appearing with the locative ending -ssen to imply "in which", is a relative pronoun. It can be used to build relative sentences, that is, sentences embedded in other sentences as a kind of descriptive phrases. Two sentences like "the treasure is great" and "you found it" can be combined as "the treasure which you found is great". Notice that the pronoun "it" of the sentence "you found it" is replaced by "which". This relative pronoun is capable of referring back to the words "the treasure", and "which I found" now becomes a descriptive phrase providing extra information about "the treasure". The probable Quenya equivalents of these examples:

	I harma ná alta "the treasure is great"
	+ hirnelyes "you found it" 
	= i harma ya hirnelyë ná alta "the treasure which you found is great"

As a relative pronoun, English may also use "that" ("the treasure that you found...")
	In German, the definite articles der, das, die (all = English "the", for various genders and numbers) are also used as relative pronouns. The Quenya article i may likewise take on this function. This is evident from Cirion's Oath, the last words of which exemplify i used first as article, then as relative pronoun: ...i Eru i or ilyë mahalmar ëa tennoio, "the One who is above all thrones forever". Since "the One" (Eru, God) is a person and not a thing, the relative pronoun must here be translated "who" rather than "which". In the original version of this course, I suggested that if there is any distinction in meaning between i and ya used as relative pronouns, this may indeed be it: i refers back to a person (English "who"), while ya refers back to a thing or a situation (English "which"). Notice, by the way, that these glosses have nothing to do with the question-words "who" and "which": The word i cannot be used for "who" in a question, like "who are you?" The Quenya word for "who" in this sense is quite different (man).
	Material that has been published later has muddied the picture somewhat. In VT42:33 we have the sentence lá caritas i hamil mára alasaila ná, which Tolkien translated "not to do what you judge good [is] unwise". While i hamil mára is here translated "what you judge good", it seems that this phrase means, more literally, "[that] which you judge good". According to the theory I was leaning towards, I would have expected ya rather than i here, but it seems that i as well may refer to a thing or a situation (English "which") rather than to a person (English "who"). 
We also have yar "to whom” in one early text: this is apparently ya with the same ending -r "to" as in mir "into" (compare mi "in"). In “Qenya”, the sentence went: tanya wende...yar i vilya anta miqilis, translated "that maiden...to whom the air gives kisses" (MC:215, 216). Interestingly, PE16 published a later version of the same text. Tolkien there changed yar to yan, using the dative ending we see in later material. But whatever the ending, ya is here used to refer to a person: "(to/for) whom" rather than "which".
	Plainly Tolkien’s precise ideas about the relative pronouns varied over time, but one elegant resolution was described in VT47:21. In this version, the relative pronouns make a distinction between ya (impersonal singular, "which"), ye (personal singular, "who") and i for personal plural. We could then have sentences like the following: i nat ya cennen "the thing which I saw", i nér ye cennen "the man whom I saw", i neri i cennen "the men whom I saw”. We are not told what the plural impersonal relative pronoun would be, but presumably ya would receive the plural ending -r just like nouns in –a, producing yar (i nati yar cennen, "the things which I saw). Nor are any dual forms cited, but they would presumably take the ending -t: yat could refer to (two) things, and yet to (two) persons, e.g. i nér atta yet cennen, "the two men that I saw".
	Obviously this system contradicts some other sources. As we have seen, ya is clearly personal rather than impersonal in the poem about the girl "to whom the air gives kisses", and i is singular rather than plural in Cirion’s Oath: i Eru i… "the One who…" (the divine name Eru, meaning "the One", should be very distinctly singular!) Nevertheless, we will adopt the system set out in VT47 for the exercises of this course. The distinction between personal ya "which" and ye "who(m)" is interesting. As we will see, other independent pronouns also have impersonal forms in -a and personal forms in -e, such as sa "it" vs. se "(s)he".
	Relative pronouns may be either the subject or the object of the relative sentence. An example of i as subject: i Eru i ëa "the One who is" (Cirion’s Oath). An example of i as object: lá caritas i hamil mára... "not to do [that] which you find good…" (VT42:33). If Tolkien had revised these sentences according to the system described in VT47:21, they would presumably become i Eru ye… and lá caritas ya…, but we must assume that the various relative pronouns can still be either subject or object with no variation in form.
	It will be noted that the plural personal relative pronoun, i, is similar in form to the article i "the". In the Etymologies, entry I, it is said that the article i is 
 "indeclinable"; it cannot receive case endings. In earlier versions of the course, I therefore suggested that the relative pronoun i might not be able to take case endings either. However, in VT47:21, we do see i inflected for both plural genitive (ion) and plural ablative (illon), both meaning "from whom". Tolkien indicated that "from whom you received it", referring to a group of several people, would be ion camnelyes or illon camnelyes (cam- verb "receive", here in the past tense camnë with the endings -lyë "you" and -s "it"). If "from/of whom" refers to a single person, it should be yëo or yello, with the singular relative pronoun ye and the singular case endings -o or -llo (for genitive and ablative).
	The impersonal pronoun ya "which" is also able to receive case endings, as indicated by the example yassen "in which" from Namárië. The locative ending is plural because the relative pronoun refers back to a plural word, tellumar "domes"; in the case of a single telluma or "dome", the relative pronoun referring back to it would likewise be singular: yassë. Likewise with other nouns: coa yassë "a house in which...", but plural coar yassen... "houses in which..." 
	Further examples (constructed by me): 

	¤ DATIVE: i nér yen antanen annanya "the man to whom I gave my gift", plural i neri in... "the men to whom..." 
	¤ GENITIVE: i nís yëo yondo cennen "the woman whose [= who's] son I saw", plural i nissi ion... "the women whose [= who's]..." With the impersonal pronoun ya, we might see forms like i coa yó [for ya-o] rambar nar carni, "the house the walls of which are red", in the plural i coar yaron rambar… "the houses the walls of which …"
	¤ POSSESSIVE: i aran yeva malta mapuvan "the king whose [= who's] gold I will seize", plural i arani iva... "the kings whose [= who's]..." (Conceivably we could have íva with a long í, representing i plural "who" + -iva as the plural possessive ending.)
	¤ ALLATIVE: i coa yanna lenden "the house to which I went / the house whither I went / the house that I went to", plural i coar yannar... "the houses to which..."
	¤ ABLATIVE: i coa yallo tullen "the house from which I came / the house whence I came / the house that I came from", plural i coar yallon [alternatively, yallor]... "the houses from which..."
	¤ LOCATIVE: i coa yassë marin "the house in which I live / the house that I live in / the house where I live", plural i coar yassen... "the houses in which..."

	In the nominative singular, the simple form ya is of course used: i parma ya etécien, "the book which I have written". It may be that this would become yar (with the plural ending -r) when referring back to a plural word: i parmar yar... "the books which..." (Distinguish the attested relative pronoun yar "to whom", MC:215, 216; this form includes the old allative ending -r instead.) Where i is used as a relative pronoun, it receives no plural ending, since i is indeclinable: Eldar i lindar "Elves who sing". 
	We have listed no dual forms, but they would presumably be quite regular: nominative yat (e.g. i peu yat... "the [pair of] lips that..."), dative yant (e.g. i veru yant... "the [married] couple to/for whom..."), genitive yato, possessive yatwa (?), allative yanta, ablative yalto, locative yatsë (e.g. i sambet yanta/yalto/yatsë... "the two-room apartment to/from/in which...")
	It should be noted that in some grammatical contexts, a case ending that could have been added to ya may be omitted and understood. For instance, given that the word for "night" is lómë (lómi-), we could presumably have a sentence like lómissë yassë cennenyes "in [the] night in which I saw it" = "(in/on) the night when I saw it", but it is also permissible to let ya occur by itself: Lómissë ya cennenyes, a construction paralleling English "in [the] night that I saw it" (very frequently, English would drop the initial "in", but in Quenya the locative ending should probably be included). 
Notice that the article may in such a case be dropped before the first noun (lómissë in our example); it is perhaps sufficiently determined by the following relative phrase. Tolkien employed such a construction in his Quenya translation of the Hail Mary. He paraphrased "in the hour of our death" as "in [the] hour that we shall die": lúmessë ya firuvammë (VT43:28 – here the ending for plural exclusive "we" is still -mmë, later revised to -lmë, whereas -mmë became dual).

Usually, a relative pronoun refers back to a noun so that the following relative sentence provides information about that noun, as in all the examples above. Notice, however, the example i carir quettar "those who form words", quoted as a description of the Elves (WJ:391). I carir quettar by itself is a relative sentence, and we could certainly connect it with a noun and let the relative sentence refer back to it, e.g. Eldar i carir quettar "Elves who form words". However, it appears that i can be put in front of a verb to express "the one who" (if the verb is singular) or "those who", "the ones who" (if the verb is plural, marked by the ending -r). Cirion's Oath provides another example: i hárar mahalmassen mi Númen "those who sit upon thrones in the West". We can probably feel free to build sentences like these:

	 Ye túla ná nís "[the one] who is coming is a woman"
	I hirner i malta nar alyë "[the ones] who found the gold are rich"
	Hiruvan i suncer limpenya "I will find [the ones] who drank my wine" (singular ...ye suncë limpenya, "[the one] who drank my wine")

In the original version of this course, I wrote at this point: 

If ya can also be used in such constructions, and we are right to assume that i signifies "who" while ya means "which", there may be distinctions in meaning like ecénien i túla "I have seen [the one] who is coming" vs. ecénien ya túla "I have seen what is coming" (literally, "I have seen [that] which is coming"). The sentence "what I want is wine" would perhaps translate something like ya merin ná limpë (i.e., "[that] which I want is wine").

If we go with Tolkien’s insight in VT47:21, ya does means "which" (with reference to a thing), but ye means "who" (with reference to a person) and i means "who" (with reference to several people). Then ecénien i túla would not be grammatical. "I have seen (the one) who is coming" should be ecénien ye túla, and ecénien i túlar would be plural: "I have seen (the ones) who are coming." This would refer to persons. If the meaning is "…(the things) that are coming", it should perhaps be …yar túlar, if we are correct to assume that ya "which" can have the plural form yar.

Word order: Some languages employ a special word order in relative sentences. German insists on placing the verb last, so that we have constructions like "the man who there stands" (der Mann der dort steht) for "the man who stands there". For a while I wondered if Quenya employed a similar system; the verb ëa "is, exists" appears near the end of the relative sentence concluding Cirion's Oath: i or ilyë mahalmar ëa tennoio, literally "who over all thrones is forever". However, as we see, the verb is not absolutely final; an entirely "German" word order would require "who over all thrones forever is".
In Namárië, the verb actually follows immediately after the relative pronoun in the relative sentence yassen tintilar i eleni "wherein the stars twinkle", literally "in which twinkle the stars". We might think that this is just a "poetic" word order, but Tolkien did not change it in the prose Namárië in RGEO:66-67. Does it make any difference that this is a relative pronoun with a case ending attached? Would it be wrong to say yassen i eleni tintilar, with the subject of the verb preceding rather than following the verb? We cannot tell. Especially in the case of yasse(n), yanna(r), yallo(n) "in/to/from which", I would imitate our attested example and let the verb immediately follow the relative pronoun: I osto yassë marë i nér "the city in which the man dwells", i tol yanna círar i ciryar "the island whither the ships are sailing", i nóri yallon tulir i ohtari "the lands whence the warriors come". Otherwise, I will not try to make out any hard-and-fast rules for what word order Quenya relative sentences should have. 

THIRD PERSON DETAILS
In the first version of this course, I called this section "Third Person Obscurities", but luckily later publications have clarified a number of things.
Above we introduced the possessive pronominal ending -rya, covering "his" and "her". So what is the corresponding subject ending, meaning "he" and "she"? 
Since the ending -lya "your" is known to correspond to an ending -lyë "you", many researchers, starting from -rya "her", have extrapolated an unattested suffix -ryë as the subject ending = "she". If, as indicated by Namárië, the Quenya for "you will find" is hiruvalyë, "she will find" would then be hiruvaryë. 
This seemed like a straightforward extrapolation, but it turns out to be wrong. The Quenya ending for "he, she, it" is simply -s or (in "rare" cases) -se (VT49:51). The ending -rya "his, her, its" doesn’t immediately seem related to this -s, but it actually is: Earlier -sjā became -zya and then -rya (VT49:17). Tolkien noted (in the same source) that the Elves sometimes associated the ending -rya with the plural ending -r and reinterpreted it as meaning "their" rather than "his/her", but in correct, formal Quenya, -rya is to have the latter meaning. This is also the meaning ascribed to it in the exercises of this course.  A shorter ending -ya could however be added to nouns ending in a consonant, e.g. talya "his foot", macilya "his sword” (PE17:130). The "colloquial" form of Quenya also used -ya in the case of nouns ending in a vowel, e.g. yulmaya "his cup" (VT49:17) – but this would be yulmarya in "correct" Quenya.
Our first clear attestation of the ending -s "he, she" was in the word eques, translated "said he / she" (WJ:414). An example of the same ending meaning "it" is provided by the word caitas "it lies" (PE17:65 – Tolkien actually translated this as "it is" in the sentence "it is beyond the river", but the reference is to a geographical place that "lies" somewhere). The lack of a distinction between male and female genders is perhaps inspired by Finnish (where the pronoun hän covers both "he" and "she"), and there isn’t even a distinction between living and non-living things, since the same ending also covers "it".
This is not true for all versions of Quenya and "Qenya", however. In Tolkien’s earlier material, there is evidence for an ending -ro that was to mean distinctly "he", apparently corresponding to -re as the ending for "she". Examples include the verb antaváro "he will give", attested in the question e man antaváro? "what will he give indeed?" (LR:63). According to Tolkien’s later system, "(s)he will give" would perhaps become antuvas instead. 
In the original version of this course, I spent some time discussing the evidence for the endings -ro and -re, but now that they are known to have been abandoned by Tolkien, this becomes less relevant. It may still be noted that the endings were evidently meant to be derived from primitive forms that had s rather than r. In the entry S- in the Etymologies of the 1930s, various Elvish words for "he, she, it" are discussed. One primitive word for "he" is cited as sō or so, "cf. -so inflection of verbs" – apparently meaning that the primitive Elvish language might express "he" by means of an ending -so added to verbs. This -so could be the origin of the Quenya ending -ro, for in Quenya, -s- occurring between vowels was normally voiced to -z-, which later became -r- (the sound z merging with original r). In the Etymologies, Tolkien went on to cite one primitive word for "she" as sē or se, "cf. -se inflexion of verbs", which would likewise produce -re in Quenya.
But not only was the distinction between "he" and "she" abandoned;  in the case of the 3rd person ending, Tolkien also dropped the change from s via z to r. In a post-LotR source, he noted that early Quenya had -ze as a longer form of the ending -s, the longer ending being "used when pronominal affixes followed" (PE17:129). However, this -ze did not produce later -re (as it would have, according to the regular development). Instead, z here reverted to s, because of analogy with the short ending -s and the independent pronoun se "he, she".

Summary of Lesson Fifteen: The Quenya pronominal possessive ending for "his, her, its" is -rya, behaving like the other endings of this kind (endings for number or case may be added after it). If a dual noun is to receive a pronominal ending, its duality is indicated by -t added to this ending (cf. máryat "her [pair of] hands" in Namárië), apparently even in the case of nouns that would otherwise receive the alternative dual marker -u instead. – The extended infinitives in -ta which may receive pronominal endings denoting the object (e.g. caritas "to do it") may also receive possessive pronominal endings denoting the subject, e.g. caritalya(s) "your doing (it)". – Nouns ending in a long vowel, e.g. má "hand", would shorten this vowel before a consonant cluster; thus the plural allative is attested as mannar (instead of mánnar). Curiously, long vowels are not shortened before ry, ly, ny, ty, though these combinations do count as consonant clusters for the purpose of stress.  – The Quenya locative case has the basic ending -ssë, plural -ssen, and dual -tsë (at least in the case of nouns with nominative dual forms in -t; nouns with nominative dual forms in -u may simply add -ssë). When added to a noun that ends in a consonant, the locative ending may appear as -dë following -l and -n, and perhaps as -së following -s and -t. (However, a final consonant may also be dropped before the ending -ssë is attached, or a connecting vowel may be slipped in before the ending.) These endings express the idea of "in", "on", "upon", e.g. ciryassë "(up)on a ship", coassen "in houses". – Quenya relative sentences may be formed using the relative pronoun ya "which, that” (plural yar?), or personal ye "who, whom" (pl. i). These relative pronouns may also receive case endings, e.g. the plural locative yassen "in which" or "wherein" occurring in Namárië (plural because it refers back to a plural word). In front of a verb, a relative pronoun can be used by itself to express "the one(s) who do(es)" whatever the verb expresses, e.g., i carir quettar "the ones/those who form words". – The ending for "he, she, it" is -s (or rarely -së). In Tolkien’s earlier material, there is some evidence for gender-distinct endings -ro "he" and -rë "she", but he seems to have abandoned them.

VOCABULARY

tatya "second" (The original name of the Second Clan of the Elves was Tatyar, literally "Seconds, Second Ones", though the Eldarin branch of that clan would later be called Noldor instead [WJ:380-381]. A variant form of tatya is atya [attested, compounded, in VT41:10], which connects more clearly with the basic number atta "two". As will be explained in Lesson 17, "second" was later expressed as attëa, but students should know the archaic form tatya as well, and we will use this form here.)
mar- "to dwell, abide"; to "live" somewhere in the sense of dwelling there (cf. Elendil's Declaration: sinomë maruvan = "in this place will I abide")
ya impersonal relative pronoun "which, that", corresponding to ye for personal "who” (the latter has the plural form i, whereas ya likely has the plural form yar)
aurë "day" (the actual daylight period, not a full 24-hour cycle)
veru "(married) couple, man and wife, pair of spouses" (an old dual form apparently lacking any singular; there are only the gender-specific words venno "husband" and vessë "wife" from the same root)
má "hand"
pé "lip", nominative dual peu (so according to VT39:9, reproducing a post-LotR source. Earlier, in the entry PEG of the Etymologies, the word pé had been glossed "mouth" instead – which would be pure plagiarism of the Hebrew word for "mouth"! But Tolkien apparently thought better of it: in LotR Appendix E, the Quenya word for "mouth" is given as anto instead, which word we introduced in Lesson Eleven.)  
mallë "road, street" (nominative pl. maller, LR:47, 56; SD:310 – as we theorized in Lesson Two, nouns in -lë may regularly have plural forms in -ler rather than -li.)
hrívë "winter"
apa preposition "after" (cf. Apanónar "the Afterborn" as an Elvish name of Men, the Elves themselves being the Firstborn – see the Silmarillion, near the beginning of chapter 12. VT44:36 confirms that apa also appears by itself in Tolkien's notes.)
Hyarmen "the South"
hyarya adjective "left"

NOTE: As suggested by their shapes, the words for "south" and "left" are closely related. As explained by Tolkien in LotR Appendix E, the four directions Númen, Hyarmen, Rómen, Formen = West, South, East, North were normally listed in that order, "beginning with and facing west" – apparently because that was the direction of the Blessed Realm. It may be no coincidence that the directions are listed counterclockwise so that the North is named last, for in the First Age when this convention was presumably established, North was the direction of Morgoth's stronghold (Angband or Thangorodrim). Our imaginary speaker facing the West would have the South on his left hand, and Tolkien explained that Hyarmen means basically "left-hand region". As Tolkien also noted, this system is "the opposite to the arrangement in many Mannish languages", which tend rather to use the East (the direction of the sunrise) as the starting-point "faced" by the speaker. Thus the words for "south" and "right" may be associated or identical – cf. for instance Hebrew yamîn.

EXERCISES

1. Translate into English (the pronominal ending -s may have various English equivalents):

A. Tuluvas i tatya auressë.
B. I hrívessë rimbë aiwi autar marien Hyarmessë; apa i hrívë autaltë Hyarmello ar tulir nórelvanna. [Here, Hyarmessë could also be Hyarmendë.]
C. Hiritarya malta i orontissen antanë alassë lieryan, an hiritaryas carnë lierya alya.
D. Tatya hrívessë ya marnes i coassë hirnes harma nu i talan.
E. Quetis lambelva, an maris nórelvassë.
F. Eques: "Cennen macil i ohtaro hyarya massë." YYY
G. I nér ye hirnë i harma nurtuva i nati yar ihíries samberyatsë.
H. I ambossë cenis i veru yet itíries coaryallo. YYY

2. Translate into Quenya:

I. She saw a couple in the street.
J. I found the woman who lives in the house between the rivers, and I watched her lips (dual) and her hands (dual); in her left hand I saw a book.
K. I saw his cup in his hands (dual), the cup from which he poured wine into his mouth.
L. The ones who dwell in the towers to which the man is going are warriors. 
M. His drinking the wine was not a good idea, for what he did after his drinking it was not wise. 
N. After we (excl.) went away [pa.t. of auta-] from our (excl.) land in the South, we have seen many Dwarves on the roads.
O. The towers on the hills are great; the one who owns [harya = possesses] the greatest tower, from which one [quen] can see the Elven-land [Eldanórë], is the richest man in the city.
P. A people whose king is wise will dwell in peace in a good land which they will love deeply. 

LESSON SIXTEEN  
The Instrumental case. Verbs with an unaccented vowel + -ta. The imperative. The nai formula.

If we accept the information provided in the Plotz letter as Tolkien's definite version of Quenya case system, we have now discussed all the Quenya noun cases except two. One of them is somewhat obscure; Tolkien supplied no further information about it, not even telling us what this case is called. The relevant ending is -s, plural -is. The Plotz lay-out suggests that this "Mystery Case" is simply a shorter, alternative version of the locative: The word exemplifying this case is listed in a parenthesis below the locative form of the same word. So instead of coassë "in a house", plural coassen "in houses", one may perhaps use the shorter forms coas, pl. coais. However, since we cannot be entirely confident regarding the function of this case, I will not construct any exercises involving it. On the other hand, the function of the last Quenya case we will discuss in this course is relatively well understood. We are talking about: 

THE INSTRUMENTAL CASE
The rule for how the instrumental case is constructed can (for pedagogical purposes!) be stated very simply: Just add -en to the dative form! So where the dative has the ending -n, corresponding to plural -in and dual -nt, the instrumental has the endings -nen, plural -inen, dual -nten. Before discussing the function of this case, we will fill in some more details about the instrumental forms as such.
	We must assume that the basic instrumental ending -nen can be added directly to nouns ending in -n and -r without creating impossible clusters, so that we could have elennen as the instrumental form of elen "star", or Anarnen as the instrumental of Anar "Sun". (These instrumental forms would of course be accented on the second-to-last syllable because of the consonants cluster -nn- or -rn- now following the vowel of this syllable.) Nouns ending in -s with stems in -r- (for older -z-) would probably also show -rn- in the instrumental, e.g. olornen as the instrumental form of olos, olor- "dream". Nouns in -n with stems in -m- must be assumed to have instrumental forms in -mnen, e.g. talamnen as the instrumental form of talan, talam- "floor". But from this point, we can't be sure. Since the group ln regularly becomes ld in Quenya, it could be that the instrumental form of (say) estel "trust, hope" should be ?estelden for older estelnen. Otherwise, as in the case of nouns in -t, it becomes even more difficult. What is the instrumental form of a noun like nat "thing"? Since **natnen is not a possible Quenya form, would it turn into ?nanten with metathesis tn > nt, or would a connecting vowel (possibly -e-) materialize to produce a form like natenen? In the case of nouns with special stem-forms ending in consonant clusters, a connecting vowel must be inserted before the ending -nen; the instrumental form of nís (niss-) "woman" may be something like nissenen. 
Some otherwise long-lost final vowel may also be preserved before case-endings, as when ambar "fate, doom" is seen to have the instrumental form ambartanen (the relevant example is further discussed below). The stem of ambar may be given as ambart(a)-: Presumably the word did end in -rta way back in primitive Elvish, but except when shielded by grammatical endings, the final vowel and (later) the -t were later lost.
If the plural ending -inen is added to a noun ending in one of the three vowels -a, -o, or -u, the initial -i- of the ending merges with the last vowel of the noun to form a diphthong. Constituting the new second-to-last syllable, it naturally attracts the stress. Thus WJ:391 has ómainen as the plural instrumental form of óma "voice", the form ómainen being accented on the diphthong -ai-. Nouns ending in -ë may originally have behaved in a similar fashion, so that lassë "leaf" once had the plural instrumental form lasseinen, accented on the diphthong ei – but in Quenya, older ei eventually turned into a long í, and the Plotz letter points to lassínen as the current form. Of course, this long í still attracts the stress, like any long vowel occurring in the second-to-last syllable of a word. It is possible that nouns ending in -i, like tári "queen", would also show í in their plural instrumental forms, tári+inen manifesting as tárínen since two short i's would merge into one long í. This plural form tárínen, accented on the í in the second-to-last syllable, would then contrast with the singular tárinen, accented on tár-. Nouns in -ë with stem-forms in -i may behave in a similar fashion. The singular instrumental form of the noun lírë, líri- "song" is attested in Namárië as lírinen (this would be simply líri+nen); perhaps the plural form would be lírínen (for líri+inen). 
For the last time in the course proper I must bore the student with the question of dual forms: Some dual instrumentals have the ending -nten as indicated by Plotz, but the dual element is obviously the t, intruding into the simplest instrumental ending -nen. So is the ending -nten peculiar to nouns with nominative dual forms in -t, so that nouns with nominative dual forms in -u would rather add the simplest ending -nen after this -u? I tend to think so; the instrumental form of Aldu "Two Trees" would then be Aldunen rather than ?Aldunten (or ?Aldanten or whatever).

As the name suggests, the function of the instrumental case is to identify the "instrument" (in a wide sense) by which some action is achieved. The best example available is probably the phrase i carir quettar ómainen "those who make words with voices" (WJ:391). This description of the Elves, involving the plural instrumental form of óma "voice", identifies their voices as the "instrument" or means by which they make words. Lacking an instrumental case, English often uses the preposition "with" instead, as in Tolkiens translation of ómainen: "with voices". However, it should be understood that the Quenya instrumental endings correspond to English "with" only where this preposition means "using" or "by means of" (i carir quettar ómainen could also be translated "those who make words using voices"). Tolkien himself used the phrase "by means of" when translating the ending -nen in the example paranyë parmanen, "I am learning by means of a book" (PE17:180).
It is highly unlikely that the endings marking the instrumental case can be used for English "with" in the sense of "together with" (and please allow me to dwell on this point for a moment, for some writers have actually misapplied the Quenya instrumental case in such a way!) A sentence like "I saw them with an Elf" can hardly be translated as **cennenyet Eldanen, for to the extent this makes any sense at all, it implies that the Elf is the instrument by which "I saw them"! On the other hand, in a sentence like "I saw them with my binoculars", it would be quite all right to use the instrumental case for the English preposition "with". (Unfortunately, I can't reconstruct the actual Quenya wording, for Tolkien doesn't seem to mention any Elvish word for "binoculars" anywhere: Perhaps the far-sighted Elves just didn't need such artifices!) In an Elfling post of September 18, 2002, Kai MacTane nicely illustrated how the meaning of the instrumental case differs from "with" meaning "together with":

This is the instrumental "with" (i.e., "using"), not the comitative "with" (i.e., "alongside, together with"). For the comitative "with", use the preposition as...

So, "I came here with an Elf": Tullen sinomë as Elda. (That is, I just arrived here, and an Elf came here along with me.)

but:

I ulundo palpanë i Nauco Eldanen: "The monster battered the Dwarf with an Elf." (That is, the monster literally picked up the entire Elf and used it to administer a smackdown on the poor Dwarf.)

Instrumental and comitative: two great tastes that should never be confused.

(Unquote MacTane.) The Quenya instrumental endings may also be rendered into English by means of other prepositions than "with". The two instrumental forms occurring in Namárië Tolkien translated as phrases involving the preposition "in"; yet it is clear from the context that the instrumental does not really intrude on the area otherwise covered by the locative. The first instrumental form occurs at the end of the first line of the song: Ai! laurië lantar lassi súrinen, "ah! like gold fall the leaves in the wind". Despite Tolkien's translation, the context indicates that the "wind" (súrë, súri-) is here thought of as the "instrument" which makes the leaves fall: "In the wind" actually implies "by means of the wind", or simply "because of the wind". This example shows that the Quenya instrumental case may indicate simply the reason why something happens (the instrumental ending marking the noun denoting what makes it happen). The second example of the instrumental case in Namárië is similar, involving the noun lírë, líri- "song": Quoting from the prose version in RGEO, reference is made to Vardo...tellumar, yassen tintilar i eleni ómaryo lírinen, that is, "Varda's...domes, in which the stars twinkle by the song of her voice" (ómaryo lírinen = "her voice's song-by"). So the song of Varda's voice is what makes the stars twinkle, and the word for "song" is accordingly marked with the instrumental ending -nen.
	Another instrumental ending translated "in" by Tolkien is found in Fíriel's Song, one line of which says that the Valar gave everyone the gifts of Ilúvatar lestanen = "in measure". Here the instrumental noun tells us something about how the verbal action was accomplished.
	The Markirya poem includes the plural instrumental form (ending -inen) of the word ráma "wing", the sails of a ship being poetically referred to as its "wings": The ship is described as wilwarin wilwa...rámainen elvië, meaning something like "fluttering like a butterfly...on starlike wings" (or, "with starlike wings", "by means of starlike wings"). We could imagine a less poetical example using the same plural instrumental form, e.g. aiwi vilir rámainen, "birds fly with (or, using) wings". Talking about a single bird we could use a dual instrumental form: aiwë vilë rámanten, "a bird flies with [a pair of] wings".

One (actually the only) example of an instrumental form occurring in the Silmarillion is particularly interesting. Near the end of chapter 21, Of Túrin Turambar, Níniel refers to her brother as Turambar turun ambartanen, "master of doom by doom mastered". UT:138 indicates that the more proper reading is Turambar turún' ambartanen. This sentence is peculiar for several reasons. The word for "doom" (= "fate") is here ambar with stem ambart(a)-, as in the name Turambar "master of doom" and the instrumental form ambartanen "by doom". Other sources point to umbar as the Quenya word for "fate, doom" (it is even mentioned in LotR Appendix E as the name of a Tengwa letter). Ambar elsewhere occurs with the meaning "world", as in Elendil's Declaration in LotR (where reference is made to the Ambar-metta or "end of the world"), but ambar "doom" only partially coincides with this noun, since the stem-form ambart(a)- is distinct. Conceivably the "proper" Quenya word for "doom" was umbar, but the variant form ambar appeared in Exilic Quenya because of influence from the corresponding Sindarin word (ammarth or amarth). We must have faith: perhaps Tolkien explains the seeming discrepancies in some still unpublished note.
	Another peculiar feature of Níniel's cry is the word turun or more properly turún', translated "mastered". The translation would seem to indicate that this is a passive participle, and the complete form must be turúna, the final -a here dropping out because the next word (ambartanen) begins in the same vowel. This form turún[a] "mastered" must be related to the verb tur- "govern, control, wield" that we introduced in Lesson Seven. However, according to the rules for the formation of passive participles set out in Lesson Ten, the participle of tur- ought to be turna or túrina; the form turún[a] is quite perplexing. It could belong to some peculiar phase in Tolkien's evolution of Quenya, an experiment later abandoned. Since we are dealing with posthumously published material here, we can never be certain that all the linguistic samples represent the Professor's definitive decisions on what Quenya grammar was "really" like.
We must hope that future publications will throw more light upon the strange form turún[a], but if we accept it as some kind of passive participle, we can make out one important grammatical rule from Níniel's cry: Following a passive participle, the agent who brought about the condition described can be introduced as a noun in the instrumental case. (Interestingly, in PE17:62 Tolkien also translates súrinen as "in (by agency of) wind”.) In our attested example, Túrin Turambar was "mastered", and since Níniel wanted to add information about what it was that "mastered" her brother, she used the instrumental form ambartanen = "by doom". A less gloomy example could involve, say, técina "written", the passive participle of the verb tec- "to write": We could build a phrase like i parma técina i Eldanen, "the book written by the Elf". Since I first published this course, we have learnt that the preposition ló or lo can also be used for this kind of "by" (VT49:24), so apparently we could also express this as parma técina ló i Elda. But the example túrun’ ambartanen still suggests that the instrumental ending can be used instead of this ló.
Following a participle, the instrumental form could surely also assume its more basic function of denoting an instrument, so that we could have a phrase like técina quessenen "written with a feather [pen]" (quessë = "feather").

We must assume that the instrumental endings can be added to the relative pronoun ya- to express "by which", "with which": Singular i cirya yanen lenden amba i sírë "the ship by which I went up the river" (amba = "up"), plural i ciryar yainen... "the ships by which...", dual i ciryat yanten... "the couple of ships by which..."
	Though our attested examples involve other cases, there is no reason to doubt that also instrumental endings can be combined with possessive pronominal endings – producing forms like mányanen "with my hand", "using my hand" (má-nya-nen "hand-my-with").
	Combined with a gerund (ending in -ië), the instrumental case may perhaps express the idea of "by doing so and so", e.g. tiriénen "by watching" (for instance, in a sentence like "I found out by watching"). When the instrumental ending is added to nouns in -ië, the vowel in front of the ending would likely be lengthened, thus receiving the accent (a quite awkward stress-pattern being avoided): Hence I go for tiriénen rather than ?tirienen, which would have to be accented on the second i. We have no attested example involving the instrumental case, but cf. Tolkien's tyaliéva as the possessive form of tyalië "play". The instrumental would likely be tyaliénen, then. Such vocalic lengthening – apparently to avoid cumbersome stress-patterns – is also observed in other parts of speech, as we will discover in the next thrilling section:

VERBS WITH AN UNACCENTED VOWEL + -TA  
We have earlier discussed what must be the main categories of Quenya verbs. There are some minor sub-groups of verbs that may have their own peculiar features, but our knowledge is very limited since (the litany of Tolkienan linguistics:) we have so few examples. All the same, a few observations about some of these sub-categories may be made, and we will deal with one of them here.
	In some of my examples and exercises I have combined the verb car- "make, do" with an adjective, e.g. exercise C in the previous lesson: Hiritaryas carnë lierya alya, "his finding it made his people rich". I should point out that we have no Tolkien-made example of an adjective being combined with car- in such a way, and it may be that I am here imposing an English idiom on Quenya. Now this may not be such a disaster: If we are ever to develop a usable form of Quenya, it would almost inevitably become somewhat coloured by modern usage (and if the Eldar return from Valinor to protest against their language being mistreated, that would not be a bad thing, either). Even so, it may be noted that Quenya vocabulary includes what may be termed causative verbs derived from adjectives; perhaps fully "idiomatic" Quenya would rather use such formations.
These verbs express, in a single word, the idea of "making" an object have the properties described by the corresponding adjective. The student should already be familiar with the ending -ta, which occurs in many Quenya verbs (e.g. pusta- "to stop"). Often it is just a verbal ending with no particular implications, but occasionally it may take on a causative meaning; compare the primary verb tul- "to come" and the derived verb tulta- "to summon" (= to cause to come). Added to adjectives, it seems that this ending may similarly be used to derive causative verbs. We have only a handful of examples, but the adjective airë "holy" apparently corresponds to a verb airita- "to hallow" – that is, "to make holy". (The final -ë of airë "holy" appears as -i- in airita- because the -ë of airë descends from -i in the primitive language, and it changed to -ë only when final. Cf. the similar variation in the aorist: silë "shines", but with a plural subject silir "shine", because if you add any ending the final vowel is no longer final at all.)
The one form of the verb airita- that is actually attested is the past tense. It reportedly appears as airitánë in an unpublished Tolkien manuscript stored at the Bodleian: According to a footnote in Vinyar Tengwar #32, November 1993, p. 7, the manuscript page in question "dates to c. 1966 and gives much information about Quenya verbs. It will be published in an upcoming issue of Vinyar Tengwar." Fifteen years and seventeen Vinyar Tengwars later, we are unfortunately still waiting to see this apparently highly interesting document – but at least VT#32 cited the past tense airitánë. It obviously includes the well-known past tense ending -në, but it should be noted that the vowel of the ending -ta- is here lengthened when the past tense ending is added. In this way, the now long syllable -tá- attracts the stress. **Airitanë with no lengthening would have a rather awkward stress-pattern (accented on -rit-), and it is perhaps for this reason the lengthening occurs. This may also imply that if some further ending is added after -në so that the stress would not threaten to land on -rit- after all, the lengthening of -ta- may not occur: Perhaps, say, "we hallowed" is airitanelvë rather than ?airitánelvë, since the stress must here fall on -ne- and -ta- receives no stress at all. Some think Quenya cannot have a long vowel in a wholly unaccented syllable unless this syllable is also the first one of the word.
Whatever the case may be, we can apparently infer this rule: As long as the past tense form of such a verb (that is, a verb with an unaccented vowel in front of the verbal ending -ta) is not to receive any further endings that may shift the stress, the ending -ta is lengthened to -tá- when the past tense ending -në is added after it: Thus airitánë as the pa.t. of airita-. Of course, not all endings that may be suffixed to -në have the power to shift the stress, and then the lengthening of -tá- must remain to prevent the accent from going someplace it shouldn't: Airitáner "hallowed" (with a plural subject), airitánes "(s)he hallowed", airitánen "I hallowed". But quite possibly, it should be airitanenyë with no lengthening of -tá- if you use the longer form of the ending for "I" – so that the stress moves to -ne-, and -ta- becomes a wholly unaccented syllable.
In the Etymologies, Tolkien listed at least one more verb that seems to belong to this class. The entry NIK-W- provides a verb ninquitá- "whiten", i.e. "make white", derived from the adjective "white": ninquë (stem ninqui-; the primitive form is given as ninkwi). By writing ninquitá-, Tolkien obviously suggested that the final vowel is often long, and we may safely assume that the past tense is ninquitánë. 
NOTE:  In the entry NIK-W-, Tolkien also listed a verb ninquita- "shine white" that would probably inflect otherwise: perhaps the past tense would rather be ?ninquintë with nasal infixion. (In the first version of this course, I warned that such a form would be very speculative, but in 2007 a similar formation was published: Tolkien used lenwentë as the past tense of the verb lenweta- “go away, migrate” [PE17:51].) In the aorist, the two verbs must probably coincide as ninquita, the context determining whether this is to be interpreted "whitens" or "shines white".

We may be able to tell one more thing about this class of verbs: how the passive (or "past") participle is formed. The evidence is widely scattered, though. 
In The Houses of Healing, Chapter 8 of Book Five in The Return of the King, Tolkien has Aragorn saying that "in the high tongue of old I am Elessar, the Elfstone, and Envinyatar, the Renewer". The Quenya title Envinyatar = "Renewer" is interesting. As for the final -r seen here, this ending may be added to (A-stem) Quenya verbs with much the same meaning as the English agent ending -er, so Envinyatar "Renewer" points to an underlying verb envinyata- "to renew". The prefix en- means "re-", and vinya is the Quenya adjective "new", so apparently we are looking at another verb derived from an adjective by means of the ending -ta.
Interestingly, what may be seen as the passive participle of this verb envinyata- "to renew" is attested in MR:405, in the phrase Arda Envinyanta. This Tolkien translated "Arda Healed" (the reference is to a future world healed from the consequences of the evil of Morgoth). Comparing it with Aragorn's title Envinyatar = "Renewer", we can tell that Arda Envinyanta more literally means "Arda Renewed". It should be noted how the passive participle is formed: by nasal-infixion intruding before the t of the ending -ta of the verb envinyata-. The resulting form envinyanta differs from the passive participles of "normal" verbs in -ta, which seem to have participles in -taina. (Compare hastaina "marred" from the same text that provides the example Arda Envinyanta "Arda Healed": Arda Hastaina or "Arda Marred" was the world as it actually appeared, marred by Morgoth. See MR:405, cf. 408, note 14. It is important to notice that these divergent types of participles occur in the same source text, allowing us to know with certainty that the different formations do belong to the same version of Quenya: Otherwise, it would be tempting to dismiss some of the formations as representing merely a certain stage in Tolkien's evolution of the language – ideas he later abandoned.)
If envinyata- "to renew" has the passive participle envinyanta, we may plausibly assume that the pass. part. of airita- "to hallow" is similarly formed by means of nasal-infixion: airinta "hallowed" (rather than ?airitaina, though perhaps this form would also be acceptable). And if airita- has the past tense form airitánë with lengthening of -ta- to -tá-, we can probably assume that envinyata- "to renew" becomes envinyatánë in the past tense. Similarly, if ninquitá- is the verb "to whiten", with the past tense ninquitánë, the participle "whitened" may well be ninquinta. (The forms envinyanta, airinta, ninquinta would of course agree in number like adjectives in -a, changing this final vowel to -ë in the plural.)
We have mentioned pretty much all the very few known verbs that may tentatively be assigned to this sub-class. There is no direct evidence for how they would behave in other forms than the past tense and the passive participle. (As for the active participle in -la, we would almost certainly see the same lengthening of the ending -ta as we observe before the past tense ending -në: hence airitála "hallowing", envinyatála "renewing". Again, the "motivation" for lengthening the vowel of -ta would be to achieve euphonic stress-patterns.)
It is of course difficult to know to what extent we should feel free to derive new Quenya verbs ourselves by adding -ta to adjectives (remembering that adjectives in -ë change this vowel to -i- before endings, as in airita- "to hallow" from airë "holy"). To return to the sentence we started with, hiritaryas carnë lierya alya "his finding it made his people rich", perhaps this might better be expressed as hiritaryas alyatánë lierya? We then assume that the adjective alya- can be used as the basis for a verb alyata- "make rich" or "enrich", with past tense alyatánë (and passive participle alyanta). In this as in other matters, people who want to write in Quenya face a difficult choice: Should we try to make the language work using solely the words Tolkien himself provided, introducing unattested idioms or long circumlocutions where necessary to work around gaps in the Tolkien-made vocabulary? Or should we feel free to derive new words from Tolkienian elements by applying the Professor's principles as far as we understand them, something that may be perceived as diluting Tolkien's actual linguistic output with "fake" elements (however cleverly constructed)? Some post-Tolkien creativity must unquestionably be allowed if we are ever to develop Quenya into anything like a useable language, but there are no easy answers here.

THE IMPERATIVE   
The imperative is a form of the verb used to express commands or requests. In English, imperatives are often preceded by the word "please" to make them more polite, but it should be understood that an imperative form as such is not necessarily to be taken as a blunt order. In Tolkien's Quenya rendering of the Lord's Prayer, several imperatives occur, and such a prayer as "deliver us from evil" is of course just that – a prayer, not an attempt to order God around.
	According to Tolkien, the primitive Elvish language had an imperative particle that could be used in conjunction with a verbal stem to indicate that it was to be taken as an imperative. The particle had the form ā, and it was "originally independent and variable in place" (WJ:365). Sometimes it was placed after the stem, and in such cases it came out as an ending -a in Quenya. WJ:364 mentions an "imperative exclamation" heca! meaning "be gone!" or "stand aside!" – and on the next page, this is suggested to come from the  primitive phrase hek(e) ā. There is also the primitive exclamation el-ā, "lo!", "look!", "see!", which is supposed to be the very first thing the Elves ever said as they awoke at Cuiviénen and first saw the stars (WJ:360). In Quenya, this word came out as ela! It was "an imperative exclamation directing sight to an actually visible object" (WJ:362).
	In the first version of this course, I wrote: "If we were to be guided by examples like heca and ela, we would have to conclude that in the case of primary verbs at least, imperatives may be formed by adding -a to the verbal stem. For instance, tir- "to watch" would have the imperative tira! "watch!", representing primitive tir-ā or tir(i) ā." Subsequent publications revealed that the imperative tira actually occurs in Tolkien’s own material (VT47:31). Notice that this imperative "watch!" is distinct from the present/continuative form tíra "is watching", since in the latter form, the stem-vowel is lengthened. Likewise, there is a distinction between present tense quéta "is speaking, is saying" (VT41:13) and the imperative queta, as in the command queta Quenya! "speak Quenya!” (PE17:138).
However, a descendant of the original particle ā can also appear as an independent word: it is placed in front of the verbal stem instead of being suffixed as an ending. In the LotR itself, an example is provided by the Cormallen Praise, the crowd hailing Frodo and Sam with the words a laita te... Cormacolindor, a laita tárienna! "Bless them... The Ring bearers, bless (or praise) them to the height" (translated in Letters:308). Notice how the verbal stem laita- "bless, praise" is here preceded by the imperative particle a to form an imperative phrase a laita! "bless!" or "praise!" The particle a also appears in the long form á, directly from primitive ā, as in the exclamation á vala Manwë! "may Manwë order it!" (WJ:404). Here, the verb vala- "rule, govern" (the origin of the noun Valar and in later usage therefore referring to "divine" power only) is combined with the imperative particle á: The literal meaning of á vala Manwë! is transparently something like "do rule Manwë!", if we make an effort to translate á as a separate word.  Incidentally, this example demonstrates that the subject of the imperative (the one who is to carry out the "order" or request) may be explicitly mentioned after the imperative phrase proper.
Is there any reason why the imperative particle appears in the short form a in a laita, but in the long form á in á vala? It has been suggested that á is shortened to a whenever it occurs in front of a long syllable (like lai-, because of the diphthong ai), but we cannot be sure. Perhaps á vs. a is just an example of random variation: Presumably being unaccented, the particle could well tend to become shortened if speakers don't enunciate with care (the ecstatic crowds at Cormallen, hailing the hobbits who had saved the world, hardly did!) I would normally prefer the long form á, avoiding confusion with a as a particle of address, like English "o" (as in Treebeard's greeting to Celeborn and Galadriel: a vanimar = "o beautiful ones", Letters:308). For instance, since the verb "to go" is lelya-, the imperative "go!" would be á lelya!
As noted above, one imperative of the verb tir- "watch” is attested as tira, but "watch!" can also be the two-word phrase á tirë, itself attested in PE17:94. This shows how primary verbs behave in imperative phrases: following á they appear with the ending -ë, just like they do when they are used as infinitives or ending-less aorist forms. The verb can also be plural, receiving the ending -r, and as usual in aorists, the ending -ë is preserved in its older form -i- when an ending follows. An example of such an imperative is á ricir! "let them try!" Tolkien noted that this refers to "persons not present, or at any rate not addressed". On the other hand, the form á ricë "try!" (also attested) would normally be a command directed at the person(s) addressed (PE17:93-94).
NOTE: The form á tula "come!" (VT43:14) seems to combine two ways of forming the imperative. Based on the evidence presented above, the imperative of tul- "come” should be either tula (stem tul- plus imperative ending -a) or á tulë (the imperative participle remains independent and is followed by an endingless aorist stem). Maybe á tula represents a super-explicit imperative where original imperative particle appears both as an independent word á and as an ending -a?
The imperative particle á can also be combined with the negation vá to form the word áva, used in negative commands: Áva carë! "Don't do [it]!" (WJ:371). As we see, the following verb behaves in the same way whether the preceding particle is á (for a positive command) or áva (for a negative command): thus car- "do" appears as carë here. An A-stem would still end in A, so the negated form of a laita "praise!" would be áva laita "don’t praise!"

THE NAI FORMULA
If one does not want to issue a command (however polite), but is merely expressing a wish that something will be done or will happen, Quenya has a special "wishing formula".
Near the end of Namárië, we find these lines: Nai hiruvalyë Valimar! Nai elyë hiruva! In LotR, this is translated "maybe thou wilt find Valimar! Maybe even thou wilt find it!" The word nai is here rendered into English as "maybe", but elsewhere, Tolkien indicated that this Quenya word does not merely imply that something is possible. He noted that nai "expresses rather a wish than a hope, and would be more closely rendered 'may it be that' (thou wilt find), than by 'maybe.'" (RGEO:68) We may wonder why he used the "misleading" translation maybe in the first place; possibly there are some "conceptual developments" involved here (i.e., Tolkien changed his mind about the precise meaning of a Quenya text he had already published!) Anyway, his final decision on the meaning of the phrase nai hiruvalyë Valimar was that it is to be interpreted "be it that thou wilt find Valimar" or "may thou find Valimar". Nai elyë hiruva likewise means "be it that even thou wilt find [it]". (The word elyë "even thou" here occurring is an emphatic, independent pronoun corresponding to the ending -lyë "thou, you", whereas Valimar here stands as an alternative to Valinor: Galadriel singing Namárië thus expresses a wish that Frodo will eventually "find" or come to the Blessed Realm – and as we remember, both he and Galadriel herself went over the Sea in the end.)
We have a few more attestations of the nai wishing-formula. It occurs in Cirion's Oath, Cirion expressing a wish that the Valar will guard the oath: Nai tiruvantes, "be it that they will guard [/watch over] it". Tolkien noted that this is the equivalent of "may they guard it" (UT:305, 317).
As for the basic meaning of the word nai itself, Tolkien implied that it is quite literally "be (it) that": He derived Quenya nai from earlier nā-i (RGEO:68). The nā part would seem to be the element meaning "be!", undoubtedly closely related to the Quenya copula ná "is", itself a form of the verb "to be". The final i must be the element corresponding to the "that" of "be (it) that", and this i is certainly meant to be related to the Quenya article i "the".
Whatever the precise origin or basic meaning of nai may be, it is a useful word that can apparently be put in front of any sentence including a future-tense verb, turning a simple statement about the future into a wish about what the future may bring: 
¤ Elda tuluva coalvanna "an Elf will come to our house" > Nai Elda tuluva coalvanna! "be it that an Elf will come to our house!" = "(I) wish that an Elf will come to our house!" or "may an Elf come to our house!"
¤ Hiruvan i malta "I will find the gold" > Nai hiruvan i malta! "be it that I will find gold!" = "wish that I will find the gold!"
¤ Caruvantes "they will do it" > nai caruvantes! "be it that they will do it!" = "wish that they will do it!"

An example of the nai formula (constructed by David Salo) occurs in the first Jackson movie. Standing on top of his tower, Saruman reads this invocation to the mountain when he tries to bring down an avalanche on the Fellowship: Nai yarvaxëa rasselya taltuva notto-carinnar! "Be it that your blood-stained horn will collapse upon enemy heads!"

When I first wrote this course, all (i.e. both) available attestations of the nai formula involved a future-tense verb, so that some future event is wished for. An example published later shows that nai can also be combined with a verb in the present (continuative) tense; if so one wishes that something is already happening: Nai Eru lye mánata  "God bless you" (VT49:39) or more literally: "Be it that God is blessing you” (already). Here lye is the pronoun "you" (singular), whereas mánata  a continuative form of a verb manta- "bless" (it is currently the sole attested example of this particular way of forming the continuative tense, but shows the long vowel also known from primary verbs, e.g. síla "is shining"). 
It may be that nai can be combined with all the tenses, even the past or perfect tense, if the speaker does not yet know if the wish came true or not. If so, we could have sentences like nai hirneltes "be it that they found it" = "I hope they found it", or nai utúlies "be it that (s)he has come" = "I hope she has come".

Summary of Lesson Sixteen: The instrumental case has the basic ending -nen, plural -inen, dual -nten (at least in the case of nouns with nominative dual forms in -t; nouns with dual forms in -u may just add the simplest ending -nen to this vowel). The instrumental ending is added to nouns denoting the "instrument" or means by which some action is done or accomplished, as when Elves are described as making words ómainen = "with voices" (óma "voice"). The instrumental ending may correspond to such English prepositions as "with" or "by" where these words mean "using", "by means of". Sometimes the instrumental ending may mark a noun simply indicating what makes something happen, as when the first line of Namárië says leaves fall súrinen = "in the wind", i.e., because of the wind. Following a passive participle, a noun in the instrumental case may indicate who or what brought about the situation described, as when Túrin is described as turún' ambartanen, "mastered by doom". – Verbs including an unaccented vowel + the ending -ta can have past-tense forms in -tánë (notice the long á) and passive participles in -nta. Attested examples include airitánë, past tense of airita- "to hallow", and envinyanta, passive participle of envinyata- "to renew, heal". These verbs are causative formations derived from adjectives by means of the ending -ta, as when airë (airi-) "holy" is the basis of the causative verb airita- "to make holy" = "to hallow". – Quenya imperatives are marked by the particle á (variant a, negative áva "don't"), which is placed in front of the verbal stem: A laita = "(do) praise!", á vala "(do) rule!" In this grammatical context, the stem of primary verbs assume the ending -ë, as in the negative command áva carë "don't do [it]!" An alternative pattern for primary verbs is to simply add the ending -a in the imperative, e.g. tira "watch!" (as an alternative to á tirë). – The word nai, meaning "be it that...", can be placed at the beginning of a sentence to express a wish: Nai tiruvantes "be it that they will guard it" or "may they guard it" (cf. tiruvantes "they will guard/watch it").

VOCABULARY

nelya "third" (The original name of the Third Clan of the Elves was Nelyar, literally "Thirds, Third Ones", though the Eldarin branch of that clan would later be called Lindar or Teleri instead [WJ:380, 382].)
á imperative particle (variant a, but we will use á here)
áva "don't!" (i.e., the imperative particle combined with a negation. Also in the form avá, the sole attested two-syllable Quenya word that is definitely known to be accented on the last syllable [WJ:371] – but we will use áva here.)
rac- "to break"
envinyata- "to renew"
airita- "to hallow"
harna- "to wound" (and the passive participle is evidently also harna, defined as "wounded" in the entry SKAR in the Etymologies. The adjectival or participial formation harna "wounded" is the primary derivative from the original root; eventually harna- also came to be used as a verbal stem "to wound". Of course, if this word were to go like a regular A-stem verb, the passive participle should then be ?harnaina. But the ending -ina is just a longer variant of the ending -na which is present from the beginning, and suffixing it twice to the same word should hardly be necessary!)
namba "hammer"
ehtë "spear"
yána "holy place, sanctuary"
nilmë "friendship"
Rómen "the East" (the initial ró- is ultimately related to the or- of the verb orta- "rise", since the Sun rises in the East.)

EXERCISES

1. Translate into English: 

A. Utúlies Rómello ninquë rocconen.
B. I nér harnanë i rá ehtenen, ar eques: "Áva matë yondonya!"
C. Quentelmë i Eldanna: "Nilmelva ná envinyanta annalyanen!"
D. I nelya auressë quentes i vendenna: "Á carë ya merilyë!"
E. Quen umë polë hirë harma nurtaina Naucoinen, an Nauco melë núravë i malta ya haryas.
F. I nér ná harna rassenten i lamno; nai úvas firë!
G. Lindëas alassenen.
H. Á lelya i ostonna ar á quetë i taura tárinna: "Nai varyuvalyë nórelva i úmië ohtarillon!"

2. Translate into Quenya (in the keys to these exercises, I have consistently used the independent imperative particle á, though in the case of primary verbs one could simply add -a to the stem):

I. He said to the Dwarf: "Break the cup with a hammer!"
J. By ship I went away [past tense of auta-] to a remote land in the East.
K. The city is protected by great walls, and warriors who fight with spears cannot break the walls.
L. Calandil said to his wounded son: "Don't die!"
M. May your queen find the sanctuary hallowed by the Elves!
N. The king and the queen went to my house and renewed our (excl.) friendship with great gifts.
O. She seizes the boy with her hands (dual), and she says: "Don't go to the river!"
P. The woman who lives (/dwells) in the third house in the street said to the Elf: "Watch the men who are coming from the sanctuary that you see on the hill, the ones who go to the east."

LESSON SEVENTEEN
The demonstratives: Sina, tan(y)a, sana, enta, yana. Inflecting the "Last Declinable Word". U-stem nouns. Ordinals in -ëa.

QUENYA DEMONSTRATIVES
"Demonstratives" are such words as English this or that, with the corresponding plural forms these and those. Thus, they have a stronger meaning than the mere article the (though in the languages of the world, many definite articles descend from older demonstratives that were overused so that their meaning faded). The demonstratives may be used together with nouns, producing phrases like "this house" or "that man".
	One example of a demonstrative occurs in Cirion’s Oath, which commences with the words vanda sina, translated "this oath". The Quenya word order is actually "oath this", sina being the word for "this": The root SI- has to do with present position in time or space (cf. such words as sí "now" or sinomë "in this place" = "here", the latter from Elendil's Declaration in LotR).
	A word for "that" appears as sana in the phrase sana wendë, translated "that maiden" (PE16:96). The phrase sana wendë uses the same word order as in English, the word for "that" preceding its noun. Perhaps the word order is free, so that vanda sina "this oath" could just as well be sina vanda – and conversely, sana wendë "that maiden" could also be wendë sana?
	An earlier "Qenya" version of the text including the phrase "that maiden" had tanya wende, with a different word for "that" but the same word order (MC:215). This early word tanya Tolkien apparently turned into tana in LotR-style Quenya. The Etymologies lists TA as the Elvish "demonstrative stem 'that'," and the actual Quenya word for "that" is given as tana. Since this form seems like a perfect counterpart to sina "this", we will here use tana rather than tanya as the word for "that". Post-LotR material describes tana as the adjective corresponding to ta, "that" as a pronoun (VT49:11).
So given that vanda sina is "this oath", we must assume that "that oath" would be vanda tana. Maybe we should update the "Qenya" phrase tanya wende "that maiden" to LotR-style Quenya vendë tana (or wendë tana with the older form or archaic spelling of the word for "maiden"). Then we also implement the word-order seen in Cirion's Oath, with the demonstrative following rather than preceding the noun it connects with: In the entry TA in the Etym, Tolkien actually described tana an anaphoric word for "that", meaning that it refers back to something already mentioned.
As noted above, Tolkien himself turned tanya wendë into sana wendë when he revised the text. This involves another word for "that"; Tolkien in his notes explained that sana means "that very thing [or person] (already referred to)" (PE16:96). The words sana and tana may be more or less synonymous words for "that".
	However, sina "this" and sana/tan(y)a "that" are not the only Quenya demonstratives known. Though not actually observed in any Quenya texts, other demonstratives are mentioned in Tolkien's notes. Another word for "that" is enta, mentioned in the entry EN in the Etymologies and there described as an adjective meaning "that yonder". The root EN itself is said to be an "element or prefix = over there, yonder". Still letting the demonstrative follow the noun it connects with, we may perhaps construct a phrase like coa enta, expressing "that house" in the sense of "yonder house", "that house over there". 
It may be that Tolkien meant Quenya to distinguish three degrees of nearness or remoteness, as do certain languages of our own world. English typically only distinguishes two degrees, "this" and "that": To simplify matters rather drastically, we may say that "this" refers to something near the speaker, whereas "that" refers to something away from the speaker. But in some languages, the position of the listener is also considered. There are two words for "that", one referring to something away from the speaker but near the person addressed ("that thing over by you") and another word referring to something that is not close to either the speaker or the listener ("that thing we see over there"). Could it be that in Quenya, tana as a word for "that" refers to something close to the person addressed, whereas enta refers to something that is remote from both the speaker and the person (s)he addresses? There is presently little or no evidence to back up such a theory, but we can at least be certain that the word enta clearly connotes the idea of "over there", "that yonder", of something separated from the speaker by physical distance. It may be noted that one Sindarin word for "there", namely ennas (SD:129 cf. 128), is understood to represent an older locative form that could correspond to a Quenya word entassë = "in yonder [place]". (Perhaps tana or sana is simply a more general word for "that", merely focusing on the special identity of someone or something: "that one" as opposed to any other.)
	Yet another word for "that" is yana, mentioned in the entry YA in Etym: After the gloss "that", Tolkien added a parenthetical specification: "(the former)". Perhaps aran yana would mean "that king" with the implication that we are talking about a former king, now dead or at least no longer ruling. There may be interesting contrasts between yana and enta as words for "that": In the Etymologies, Tolkien noted that the root YA signifies "there, over there; of time, ago". He added that EN, the root producing enta, "of time points to the future". So "that day" may translate as aurë enta if we are talking about some future day, not yet come, whereas aurë yana is "that day" with reference to some day in the past. (A "neutral" wording, with no special implications, may be aurë tana.)

As for plural demonstratives, like English "these" and "those", we have no attested Quenya forms. Yet the words sina "this" and tana, yana "that" do look like adjectives by their form (-na being an adjectival or participial ending), and enta "that yonder" Tolkien explicitly identified as an adjective (Etym, entry EN). He likewise called tana an adjective (VT49:11). So in all likelihood, we can inflect all of these words as adjectives, and then we can derive their plural forms simply by changing the final -a to -ë:

	vanda sina "this oath" / vandar sinë "these oaths"
	nís tana "that woman" / nissi tanë "those women"
	coa enta "that house [over there]" / coar entë "those houses"
	aurë yana "that day [in the past]" / auri yanë "those days"
 
As in the case of normal adjectives with the ending -a, the plural forms in -ë would represent archaic forms in -ai (vandar sinai etc.) Indirect evidence confirms that demonstratives could receive the plural ending -i in older Elvish: In LotR, in the inscription on the Moria Gate, occurs the Sindarin phrase i thiw hin, translated "these runes". Tolkien would have meant this to represent something like in teñwāi sināi at an older stage – and in Quenya, an old plural demonstrative sināi "these" would first become sinai and then sinë. (In notes published in PE17:44, Tolkien does connect Sindarin hen, hin "this, these" to the ancient word sĭna "this", still preserved in Quenya.)

It is not clear whether the demonstratives discussed above could occur by themselves, independently, and not only in conjunction with nouns. Can we use sina for "this" in a sentence like "this is a good house"? (And if we needed a plural form "these", should we inflect sina as a noun when it occurs by itself, so that the plural would now be sinar rather than sinë?) As for the other demonstratives, we have ta as an "independent" form of "that", corresponding to the adjective tana (see Etym, entry TA, and VT49:11). Of other such "independent" forms, little or nothing is known, and in the exercises below, we will concentrate on the adjectival demonstratives sina, tana, enta, yana used in conjunction with nouns.

INFLECTING THE "LAST DECLINABLE WORD"
Now that we have presented all the Quenya cases, we may also point out that the various case endings are not always attached to the noun they logically "belong" to. Where that noun is part of a longer phrase, like when the noun is followed by an attributive adjective describing it, the case ending may be added to the last word of the phrase.
	Cirion's Oath provides the classical example. It includes a reference to Elendil Voronda, "Elendil the Faithful", voronda being a Quenya adjective meaning "steadfast, faithful". Wrote Tolkien: "Adjectives used as a 'title' or frequently used attribute of a name are placed after the name." (UT:317; as we have pointed out earlier, Quenya here differs from English by not inserting a definite article between the name and the adjective – hence not Elendil i Voronda, at least not necessarily). 
In Cirion's Oath, the name-and-title phrase Elendil Voronda is to appear in the genitive case: The Oath includes the words Elendil Vorondo voronwë, "Elendil the Faithful's faith" – or (as it is translated in UT:305, with an English-style word order) "the faith of Elendil the Faithful". Notice that the genitive ending -o, which we underlined, is added to the adjective voronda (regularly displacing a final -a) rather than to the noun Elendil. In a way, the adjective following the noun is treated as an extension of the noun proper, and so the case ending is added at the end of the whole phrase. Tolkien commented on the construction Elendil Vorondo: "As is usual in Quenya in the case of two declinable names in apposition only the last is declined" (UT:317). Voronda "faithful" here stands in apposition to "Elendil" as an additional "name" or title, and only the latter "name" is declined (inflected for case).
This principle would work with all the various cases. The allative of Elendil when the name occurs alone is attested as Elendilenna "to Elendil" (PM:401), but "to Elendil the Faithful" would apparently be Elendil Vorondanna, the last word of the phrase receiving the case ending.
Where a proper name followed by some epithet (like Voronda in this case) is concerned, the system of adding any case endings to the last word of the phrase may be more or less universal. Yet common nouns, not just proper names, may also be qualified by adjectives following rather than preceding the noun. Cf. for instance a phrase like mallë téra "road straight" = "a straight road" (LR:47). If we were to add the locative ending to express "on a straight road", to what word should it be attached? Should we apply the "last declinable word" rule again (mallë térassë) or attach the locative ending to the noun (mallessë téra)?
It seems that both constructions would be permissible. The Markirya poem provides a string of examples of noun-phrases where the noun proper is followed by an adjective (in most cases a participle). Three consecutive examples involve the noun isilmë "moonlight" combined with various participles (ilcala "gleaming", pícala "waning", lantala "falling"), and all three noun phrases are inflected for the locative case by attaching the locative ending to the last word of the phrase:

isilmë ilcalassë = "in gleaming moonlight"
isilmë pícalassë = "in waning moonlight"
isilmë lantalassë = "in falling moonlight"

(Tolkien's more poetic translation in MC:215 goes "in the moon gleaming, in the moon waning, in the moon falling".)
Another phrase, again involving the participle ilcala "gleaming" but here combined with the allative case, is particularly interesting:

axor ilcalannar = "upon gleaming bones"

Notice that the noun axo "bone" is here plural. The plural allative "upon bones" occurring by itself would of course be axonnar. But here, where the plural allative ending -nnar is attached to the last word of the phrase instead, the noun axo itself receives only the simplest plural ending -r. Normally, axor would be taken as a nominative plural, but actually the -r merely marks the word as a plural form in the simplest possible way: The actual case marker follows later in the phrase. Words with nominative plurals in -i would of course receive this plural marker instead, e.g. vendi lindalaiva = "of singing maidens" (home-made example involving the possessive case, but the principle would be the same for all the cases: dative vendi lindalain, allative vendi lindalannar, etc.) We must assume that dual nouns would also appear in their simplest (normally "nominative") form at the beginning of the phrase: The noun would merely assume the dual ending -u or -t, and the full dual case ending would follow later in the phrase. To construct a Tolkienesque example: Aldu caltalanta = "upon [the] shining couple of trees".
	However, it is apparently not a hard-and-fast rule that you must attach a case ending to the last word of the entire phrase rather than to the noun proper. Markirya contains examples of phrases where an attributive adjective follows the noun it describes, and yet the case ending is added to the noun, not the adjective. The first example involves a plural instrumental form (ending -inen), whereas the second example involves the locative case (the ending -ssë being added to a noun that is inflected for the "partitive plural" marked by the ending -li):

rámainen elvië = "on [/with] starlike wings"
ondolissë mornë = "on dark rocks"

Of course, the adjectives elvëa "starlike" and morna "dark" are here plural (elvië, mornë) to agree with the plural nouns they describe. It could be that in both instances, the case ending is not added to the adjective because the adjectival plural inflection and the case inflection would somehow collide. (In the phrase axor ilcalannar "upon gleaming bones" there is no collision even though "bones" is plural, since participles in -la apparently do not agree in number.) It is less than clear how an ending like -inen could be added to a form like elvië anyway: ?elviëinen seems like an unlikely and awkward form, prone to collapse into the quite obscure word **elvínen. Perhaps that is why Tolkien preferred to add the case ending to the noun ráma instead, even though this noun is not the last word of the phrase.
	Yet the system of inflecting the "last declinable word" does seem to be a common phenomenon in the language. A new example was published in January 2002: It turns out that in one incomplete Quenya translation of the Gloria Patri, Tolkien used fairë aistan as the dative form of "Holy Spirit"; here fairë means "spirit" and the adjective aista "holy" follows it, and the dative ending -n is appended to the latter word (VT43:37). It seems that sometimes, only the last item on a list receives case endings that actually apply to all the nouns that are listed. Namna Finwë Míriello is translated "the Statute of Finwë and Míriel" (MR:258). Not only is the conjunction ar "and" that would have separated the two names omitted, but the genitive ending -o "of" is added to the last name (Míriel, Míriell-) only. The "full" construction would presumably have been Namna Finwëo ar Míriello, but it was apparently permissible to strip the phrase down to basics to provide the "Statute" with a more concise title.
	The dedication Tolkien wrote for his student Elaine Griffiths is somewhat ambiguous as regards the placement of case endings: Elainen tárin Periandion ar meldenya anyáran, untranslated but apparently meaning "to Elaine queen of Hobbits and my very old friend". The dative ending -n is added both to the name Elaine and to the following noun tári "queen"; according to the "Last Declinable Word" rule, we might think that Elaine tárin would be enough to express "to Elaine, queen…" But in the phrase meldenya anyáran, apparently "to my very old friend", Tolkien did attach the ending -n to the final adjective anyára "very old/oldest" only.

Though we have no attested examples, the demonstratives listed above would seem to be good candidates for receiving case endings, if the word order observed in the phrase vanda sina "oath this" is normal. For instance, if we were to add the instrumental ending to express "by this oath", it would perhaps be best to say vanda sinanen. However, vandanen sina would probably also be permissible – and in the plural (nominative presumably vandar sinë "these oaths"), consistently adding the case ending to the noun would be the safest course: "By these oaths" would then be vandainen sinë rather than ?vandar sinëinen or sinínen or whatever.

U-STEM NOUNS
Apparently in the latter part of the "Common Eldarin" stage of Tolkien's simulated evolution of his Elvish languages, two parallel changes occurred, affecting what had earlier been short final -i and short final -u: they now turned into -e and -o, respectively. However, since this change only occurred where these vowels were final, they remained -i- and -u- whenever some ending or other element followed. We have already alluded to this phenomenon earlier in this course; in particular, the student will remember it from the variation observed in the aorist of primary verbs: silë "shines", but pl. silir "shine" (because original -i did not change to -e when there was a following ending, like the plural marker -r in this example). Similar variation may be observed in nouns and adjectives: We have already mentioned the noun lómë "night", which has the stem-form lómi- (SD:415) because it descends from earlier dômi- (see the entry DOMO in Etym). We must assume that (say) the locative form "at night" would be lómissë. The adjective carnë "red" descends from primitive karani (see Etym, entry KARÁN) and therefore has the stem-form carni-, for instance in a compound like Carnistir "Red-face" (PM:353).
	The behaviour of these "i-stems" of course finds its parallel in the U-stems, words that end in -o when this vowel is absolutely final, but preserve an original -u where some element follows this vowel. Such words seem to be predominantly (perhaps exclusively) nouns. One example of a U-stem noun is ango "snake": Its stem-form angu- is directly observed in the compound angulócë (simply glossed "dragon", but actually combining the word for "snake" with the word normally translated "dragon", lócë: see the entry LOK in Etym). In the Etymologies, Tolkien derived ango "snake" from older ANGU (or ANGWA, which would become angw and then angu), so the final -o of this word does indeed represent an older -u. Whenever the noun ango is to receive endings for case or pronoun, it would apparently assume the form angu-, e.g. dative angun "for a snake", ablative angullo "from a snake" or with a pronominal ending e.g. angulya "your snake". The genitive would presumably be anguo "of a snake". (As we have demonstrated earlier, "normal" nouns ending in -o do not have distinct genitive singular forms; the genitive ending -o simply merges with the final vowel.)
	Where U-stem nouns end in either -go or -co, they assume a peculiar form in the nominative plural. Normally, nouns ending in -o would of course have nominative plural forms in -or. However, where -go and -co represent older -gu and -ku, it seems that adding the primitive plural ending -ī made the preceding u become w, so that the plurals came to end in -gwī or -kwī. Probably w merged with the g or k preceding it: The combinations gw, kw are evidently best taken as unitary sounds, labialized versions of g and k (that is, g or k pronounced with poised lips – look up Lesson One again). In Quenya, these labialized sounds persisted, though by convention, kw is spelt qu. Bottom line is, when we are told that ango "snake" has the stem angu-, we can also deduce that the plural form is neither **angor nor **angur, but angwi! The Etymologies confirms this; the plural form angwi is explicitly mentioned in the entry ANGWA/ANGU.
An example of a -qui plural is provided by the word urco "bogey", which has the plural urqui (= urcwi). Regarding this word, Tolkien noted that "as the plural form shows", urco must be derived from either urku or uruku in the primitive language (WJ:390). Thus, urco is definitely a U-stem noun, its final -o representing older -u, and we would still see urcu- in compounds and before most inflectional endings.
	
NOTE: The word urco "bogey" is akin to Sindarin orch, "Orc". In WJ:390, Tolkien notes that in the lore of the Blessed Realm, the word urco "naturally seldom occurs, except in tales of the ancient days and the March [of the Eldar from Cuiviénen], and then [it] is vague in meaning, referring to anything that caused fear to the Elves, any dubious shape or shadow, or prowling creature... It might indeed be translated 'bogey'." Later, when the Noldor returned to Middle-earth, the word urco pl. urqui was primarily used with reference to Orcs, since the kinship ("though not precise equivalence") of this Quenya term to Sindarin orch was recognized. In Exilic Quenya, a Sindarin-influenced form also appeared: Orco, the plural of which could be either orcor or orqui. The plural form orcor occurs elsewhere as well (MR:74), but if one prefers orqui, one should probably let orco "Orc" function as a U-stem in all respects. For instance, if one were to coin a compound "Orc-language", it should be orculambë rather than orcolambë. In the Etymologies, far predating the source reproduced in WJ:390, Tolkien also gives the relevant word (glossed "goblin"!) as orco pl. orqui: stem ÓROK. In Etym, there is no hint that this word was borrowed into Quenya from another language; orco is referred to a primitive form órku. Tolkien's precise ideas about the history of the Quenya word for "Orc" were apparently subject to change, but the basic idea that nouns in -co derived from primitive forms in -ku should have plurals in -qui rather than -cor is seen to persist. – In accordance with our policy of avoiding specific references to Tolkien's mythos in the exercises, we will not refer to "Orcs" here, but we can use the word urco in its sense of "bogey" (it will occur in the exercises appended to Lesson Eighteen).

We will try to survey the words involved (excluding the earliest "Qenya" material). Ango "snake", pl. angwi, seems to be our sole entirely certain example of a -gwi plural. In the Etymologies, there was also lango "throat", pl. langwi (see the entry LANK). The form langwi is for some reason marked with an asterisk, which would normally indicate that this form is unattested, but possibly it has another meaning here. Anyway, Tolkien decided to change the word for "throat", turning it into lanco instead. It is entirely possible that this is also a U-stem, so that its plural should be lanqui rather than lancor, though we have no explicit information to this effect.
	One certain U-stem is the word for "arm", ranco (primitive form explicitly given as ranku). Just as we would expect, the plural form is ranqui; see the entry RAK in Etym. A word meaning "arm" would presumably often appear in its dual form to signify a natural pair of arms. We may wonder whether the dual form of ranco would be rancu (with the dual ending -u, quite unrelated to the original final -u that later became -o) or rancut (i.e., the U-stem noun ranco, rancu- with the dual ending -t). As we have argued from the attested example peu "pair of lips", nouns denoting body-parts occurring in pairs may often have "fossilized" dual forms in -u, since it was this ending that originally denoted a natural or logical pair. Once a pronominal ending is added, we may at least safely suffix -t to indicate a dual form. Indeed, without this ending there would be no distinction between ranculya "your arm" and ranculyat "your (pair of) arms", no matter what the dual of ranco may be when the word occurs by itself: Before endings, ranco must become rancu- anyway.
	Another U-stem is rusco "fox"; it our source, Tolkien mentioned both the stem-form ruscu- and the plural rusqui (VT41:10).
	Not all U-stems end in -co or -go, of course. One example is the word curo "a skillful device" (VT41:10, last word of gloss uncertain due to Tolkien's difficult handwriting). Tolkien cited the stem-form curu-, and it apparently also occurs in Saruman's Quenya name: Curumo (UT:401). This name seems to combine the element curu- with the masculine ending -mo "that often appeared in names or titles" (WJ:400). We may wonder what the nominative plural of curo, curu- would be. Could it be curwi, paralleling angwi as the plural of ango, angu- "snake"?
	Anyhow, the special nominative plurals ending in -wi (spelt -ui when part of -qui) would also be reflected in the genitive plural and the dative plural: If the nominative plural of rusco "fox" is rusqui (= ruscwi) the corresponding dative and genitive forms can hardly be anything else than rusquin (= ruscwin) and rusquion (= ruscwion), respectively. One would think that we would also see rusquiva (= ruscwiva) as the plural possessive, and rusquinen (= ruscwinen) as the plural instrumental. There is one form that can be cited against the two latter assumptions: the related adjective ruscuitë "foxy", mentioned in the same source that gives us rusco, ruscu- pl. rusqui (VT41:10). In the word ruscuitë, which includes the adjectival ending -itë, there is no development cui > cwi = qui; we don't see **rusquitë. The ending -itë may by its shape resemble the case endings -iva and -inen for plural possessive and plural instrumental. So if we have ruscuitë, perhaps we would – as phonologically parallel forms – also see ruscuiva and ruscuinen rather than rusquiva, rusquinen? We cannot know. I will not construct any exercises involving the plural form of the possessive and instrumental cases.
	In the other cases, where the plural case endings do not include the vowel -i, all one has to remember is to change the final -o of a U-stem noun to -u before adding whatever ending is relevant. Using ango, angu- "snake" as our example, we would for instance have the plural allative angunnar "to snakes" (not **angwinna or **angwinnar or whatever; cf. the singular angunna "to a snake"). Likewise we would have the pl. ablative angullon or angullor "from snakes" (sg. angullo "from a snake"), pl. locative angussen "in snakes" (sg. angussë "in a snake"). As the corresponding dual forms, we would presumably see angunta, angulto, angutsë = "to/from/in a pair of snakes". Pronominal endings would also be added to the stem-form angu-, and any further endings for number or case would then be added after the pronominal ending as described in earlier lessons: angulya "your snake", plural angulyar (hardly **angwilyar!) "your snakes", dual angulyat "your pair of snakes", dative angulyan "for your snake", plural dative angulyain (hardly **angwilyain!) "for your snakes", etc. etc.
NOTE: Nonetheless, the nominative plurals in -wi (-gwi, -qui) must be seen as the most striking feature of U-stem nouns. In at least one instance, this plural formation apparently spread to another noun by analogy: According to the Etymologies, entry TÉLEK, the noun telco "leg" has the plural telqui, but this plural is said to be "analogical". Presumably, Tolkien's idea is that telco is not a "true" u-stem noun (it does not come from Primitive Elvish teleku or telku, but rather descends from something like telekō, telkō). Therefore, its plural "should" have been telcor, and the actual form telqui is merely due to influence from such pairs as ranco pl. ranqui or urco pl. urqui. However, telco seems to be exceptional in this respect. I don't think we should replace (say) Naucor as the plural form of Nauco "Dwarf" with **Nauqui.

ORDINALS
We have already introduced three ordinal numbers, minya "first", (t)atya "second" and nelya "third". All three include the frequent adjectival ending -ya (occurring in the word Quenya "Elvish" itself). However, it turns out that most ordinals end in -ëa, displacing the final vowel of the corresponding cardinal number. Thus we have the following correspondences between cardinals and ordinals:

	canta "four" vs. cantëa "fourth"
	lempë "five" vs. lempëa "fifth"
	enquë "six" vs. enquëa "sixth"
	otso "seven" vs. otsëa "seventh"
	tolto "eight" vs. toltëa "eighth" (also toldëa, presupposing toldo as a variant word for "8")
	nertë "nine" vs. nertëa "ninth"

This table is based on an account of Eldarin numerals written by Tolkien in the late sixties, published in VT42:24-27 (also see the editorial notes on pp. 30-31). Tolkien indicated that the word for "fifth" had earlier been either lemenya or lepenya (with the same ending as in minya etc.), but this "irregular" form was later replaced by lempëa by analogy with the simple cardinal lempë "five". Tolkien's notes present varying views as to when this substitution occurred (whether already in pre-Exilic times, or later), but it is at least clear that in Frodo's day, lempëa would be the word to use when you need to express "fifth".
	Even the words for "second" and "third" could have the ending -ëa instead of -ya. The ordinal (t)atya "second" was "early replaced" by attëa, which would be a "regular" formation compared to the cardinal atta "two". Similarly, nelya as the word for "three" could also be replaced by neldëa, more clearly reflecting the cardinal neldë "three" (but in this case, nothing is said about neldëa wholly replacing nelya).
	VT42:25 also lists a word for "tenth", quainëa. This presupposes quain or quëan as the word for "ten" (VT48:6, 12, 20), distinct from cainen listed in earlier sources (see for instance the entry KAY in the Etymologies). While cainen was still the word for "ten", the ordinal "tenth" was perhaps cainenya.
	Over the next three lessons, we will work our way through the attested ordinals, starting with the word for "fourth" (cantëa).

Summary of Lesson Seventeen: Quenya demonstratives include sina "this", tana "that" (one early source also has tanya), sana "that" (the one referred to), enta "that (yonder)" (apparently with emphasis on spatial position, though it may also refer to something that lies in the future) and yana "that (former)" (of time used of something that lies in the past, the opposite of enta). It may be assumed that the corresponding plural forms (the words for "these" and "those") end in -ë rather than -a, since these demonstratives probably behave like adjectives. Demonstratives can be placed after the noun they connect with; Cirion's Oath has vanda sina for "this oath". A demonstrative may also precede the noun, as in sana wendë "that maiden". – Where there are several declinable words in a phrase, as when a noun is followed by an attributive adjective (or participle) describing it, a case ending may be added to the last word of the phrase. The noun itself, if not singular, would receive only the simplest endings for number (the endings normally associated with the nominative case, like -i or -r in the plural): The case ending that follows later in the phrase would still determine what case the entire phrase is. – U-stem nouns originally ended in the vowel -u, which in Quenya has become -o when the word occurs without endings, but where not final, the vowel remains -u-. Thus a word like ango "snake" appears as angu- in a compound (e.g. angulócë "snake-dragon"), and no doubt also before endings for pronoun or case (e.g. angulya "your snake", or allative angunna "to a snake"). The nominative plural of U-stem nouns is formed with the ending -i (rather than -r), and at least where the noun happens to end in -go or -co, the final vowel representing an older u turns into w before the plural ending. Thus the nominative plural of ango, angu- is angwi, and the plural of ranco, rancu- is ranqui (this spelling representing rancwi). These special plurals may also be reflected in the other cases that have plural case endings involving the vowel i, certainly the genitive plural (angwion, ranquion) and dative plural (angwin, ranquin). – The ordinal numbers from "fourth" to "ninth" are formed by replacing the final vowel of the corresponding cardinal number with -ëa, e.g. cantëa "fourth" from canta "four". Even the ordinals (t)atya "second" and nelya "third" may be replaced by attëa, neldëa (cf. the cardinals atta "two", neldë "three").

VOCABULARY
In addition to learning these new words, the student should notice that the noun ranco "arm" (introduced in Lesson Three) is a U-stem: rancu-.

cantëa "fourth"
tana demonstrative "that"
enta demonstrative "that [yonder]", "[the one] over there" (of time referring to some future entity)
yana demonstrative "that" = "the former" (of time referring to some past entity)
sina demonstrative "this"
ango (angu-) "snake"
sangwa "poison"
lómë (lómi-) "night"
polda adjective "strong, burly" (of physical strength only; the verb pol- "can" is probably related)
halla adjective "tall"
forya adjective "right"
Formen "(the) North" (cf. Formenos, the "Northern Fortress" constructed by Fëanor in the Blessed Realm; the final element -os is reduced from osto "fortress; city".)

This concludes our listing of the four directions Númen, Hyarmen, Rómen, Formen = West, South, East, North (this being their proper "Middle-earth" order). Just as Hyarmen "South" is related to the adjective hyarya "left", so Formen "North" is related to the adjective forya "right", since the reference-point is that of a person facing West (looking towards Valinor).

EXERCISES
In the following exercises, I consistently let demonstratives follow the noun they connect with, in part so that we can practice the "last declinable word" rule by adding case endings to the demonstrative. For simplicity I also use tana rather than sana for "that" throughout, but both words must be considered valid. 

1. Translate into English:

A. Nat sina ná i macil hirna Calandil Hallanen. 
B. Ilyë lamni avánier nórë sinallo.
C. Ango harnanë forya rancurya, ar eques: "Nai ilyë angwi firuvar!"
D. Lómë yanassë hirneltë Nauco tana ambo entassë. 
E. I hallë ciryar oantier Formenna; ciryar tanë úvar tulë i nórennar Hyarmeno.
F. I cantëa auressë tári yana firnë anguo sangwanen.
G. I poldë ranqui i nerion Formello polir mapa i ehti ohtari mahtalallon.
H. Hrívë yanassë marneltë i cantëa coassë mallë tano.

2. Translate into Quenya:

I. Watch that Dwarf, and don't watch this Elf!
J. A land without snakes is a good land, for many Men [Atani] have died by (instrumental) snake-poison.
K. During (locative) the fourth night I saw a terrifying warrior on that road, and I raised my arms (dual).
L. Wish that [= nai] the strong son of Calandil the Tall will come to this land, for he will protect these cities in which we (inclusive) dwell!
M. That tower (or, yonder tower) is the fourth tower made by Elves in this land.
N. Those books are gone [vanwë the pl. of vanwa]; they have disappeared from your room.
O. On that day you shall see your son.
P. On that day they came from that [/yonder] mountain and went to this house. (Notice that the past tense of tul- is túlë according to some texts [LR:47, SD:246], though perhaps tullë would also be possible.) 

LESSON EIGHTEEN 
Independent pronouns. Impersonal verbs. U-stem verbs. The various uses of lá.

INDEPENDENT PRONOUNS

All the pronouns so far discussed have been endings. However, Quenya also has pronouns that appear as independent words. Some of them are emphatic; the pronoun appears as a separate word to put special emphasis on it. These emphatic pronouns we will discuss in the next lesson. Here we will concentrate on the simplest independent pronominal elements.
	In the original version of this course, I had to piece together a pronominal table from fragments of information painstakingly gathered from widely scattered sources. But in 2007, VT49 finally presented some of Tolkien’s late writings on the subject of pronouns, so I can now give a far more confident and complete account.
	In the first person singular, the independent pronoun is ni = "I". According to PE17:68, ni can also function as the object "me". We have already cited Quenya sentences including the dative pronoun nin "for me", which is simply ni with the normal dative ending -n attached. 
	In the 2nd person singular, there are two pronouns. One word for "you" is lye, providing a virtually unique example of a Quenya word beginning in ly (palatalized L), though ny and ty (palatalized N, T) are common initial sounds in the language. This lye of course corresponds to the ending -lyë. It denotes a polite or formal "you". This word would be used between adults in general. But family members, lovers and close friends may address one another with the more intimate pronoun tye (likewise corresponding to an ending -tyë that can be added directly to verbs).
	These words for singular "you" (or "thou") can also appear in object position: "thee" rather than "thou". In LR:61, we have the sentence inyë tye-méla, "I love thee". (The initial inyë in an emphatic word for "I", to be discussed in the next lesson.) Lye as object occurs in the sentence nai Eru lye mánata "God bless you" (VT49:39).
	In the 3rd person singular, there is a distinction between living and non-living things. "He, she, it" referring to something that is alive is se. When used of a person, we will naturally translate se as either "he" or "she", but it can also be used for "it" referring to an animal or even a plant (VT49:37). The corresponding impersonal pronoun is sa = "it" of something that is in no way alive (like a stone). Both se and sa can function as either subject or object, as can English "it"; se would be translated "him" or "her" if a person is concerned. The stressed variant sé (with a long vowel) is attested as object in the sentence melin sé "I love him" (VT49:21). Sa as object occurs in the sentence ecë nin carë sa "I can do it" (VT49:34; this sentence uses a peculiar construction that we will discuss below, but the student may already have recognized the dative pronoun nin "for me").
	Yet another word for "it" or "that" is ta (LR:389), related to the demonstrative tana "that". In fact, tana may be regarded as the adjectival form of ta. 
	In the 1st person plural, there are two words for "we" (also object "us"). The inclusive form is ve (archaic we, similar in spelling to the English pronoun!) This ve must not be confused with the preposition "as, like". Exclusive "we" is me. These pronouns thus correspond to the pronominal endings -lvë (-lwë) and -lmë, and these endings indeed incorporate the same pronominal stems as their final syllable. 
	The 2nd person plural pronoun is le = "you" (distinct from the singular lye "thou"). At an older stage, the word for singular "you" was le, whereas de was plural "you". Later, initial d became l in Quenya, so these two pronouns threatened to fall together as le. It would seem that it was therefore, to maintain the distinction between singular and plural "you", that the original (singular) le was altered to lye (by analogy with the ending -lyë?) Older de regularly produced le for plural "you" (but the original form of the pronoun is preserved in the ending -ldë, also plural "you").
	In the 3rd person plural, the words for "they, them" show the same distinction between living and non-living things as singular se vs. sa. Once again, the "personal" pronoun ends in -e, only with T rather than S as the initial consonant: Te. One might then think that "they" of non-living things would be ta, corresponding to singular sa "it". Indeed Tolkien does use ta for impersonal "they, them" in some sources. In one version of his translation of the Lord’s Prayer, he used ta in a sentence apparently meaning "we forgive them" – where "them" refers to trespasses rather than the persons who committed them (VT43:8, 9). But this proved problematic, for Tolkien also wanted ta to be the pronoun "that" (closely related to the demonstrative tana). One solution he experimented with was to add an extra plural marker to ta as a plural pronoun. In one source we thus have tai as the word for plural impersonal "they", and he noted that the personal forms se "he, she it" vs. te "they" corresponded to impersonal sa "it" vs. tai "they" (of non-living things). In one text tai was emended to te, perhaps suggesting that Tolkien considered dropping the distinction between personal and impersonal pronouns in the words for "they" (VT49:53). There is even one text that apparently lists sa as the word for impersonal "they" (VT49:51), but since this word is used for "it" elsewhere, this would not seem like a viable solution. 
NOTE: The ending -ltë "they" incorporates the pronoun te of simular meaning, though -ltë makes no distinction between personal and impersonal "they". It may be noted that all the plural pronominal endings added to verbs are derived according to the pattern "L + the basic stem of the pronoun": -lmë and -lvë (older -lwë) for "we", exclusive and inclusive; -ldë for plural "you" (independently older de has become le as discussed above), and -ltë for "they". The L occurring in these endings is a plural marker.
	The dual pronouns are normally formed by adding -t to the corresponding plural pronoun. Thus we have met for dual exclusive "we" ("I and one other"), whereas the inclusive form ("we = I and thou") is given as wet (VT49:51). This must be the archaic pronunciation; by the Third Age this would be vet. In the second person we have let for "you two", formed from the plural pronoun le "you". This is the formal/polite form; however, the corresponding intimate pronoun is exceptionally formed from the singular pronoun tye, resulting in the form tyet for an intimate "you two" (VT49:51).
	The word for dual "they" shows the same initial consonant t- as the plural forms, but as we remember, the dual ending -t is often replaced by -u when there is already another t in the word. The word for dual "they" ("the two of them") is given as tú (VT49:51). It comes from a list where the pronouns are given in their stressed forms, often with lengthening of the vowel, so it may be that this word would appear as tu (without the long vowel) when it is not stressed. Here there is no distinction between animate and inanimate; tu is "they" with reference to either two living beings or two things.

Those were the forms. Next question is, when are they to be used – instead of the now-familiar endings attached to verbs?
	Sometimes Tolkien does use independent pronouns (instead of endings) for no very obvious reason. A curious attestation of ni comes from a sentence in the "Arctic" language, mentioned in The Father Christmas Letters. (Though this posthumously published work of Tolkien's has nothing to do with the Arda mythos, the "Arctic" sentence is transparently a form of Quenya.) The relevant part of the sentence goes ni véla tye, "I see you" (which also illustrates the pronoun tye "you"). There seems to be no obvious "reason" for this deviation from the normal system. It has been suggested that since the intended audience for The Father Christmas Letters was Tolkien's young children, he may have "simplified" the language to make it easier for them to figure out which word means what. However, since the latter part of the "Arctic" sentence employs a quite complex grammatical construction which is certainly not the literal counterpart of the English translation provided, we should hardly think of the language as "simplified". 
For "I" as subject, the ending -n(yë) added to the verb is normally to be preferred, but the independent word ni may be a valid alternative. It may be noted that in one of Tolkien's draft versions for Elendil's Declaration, the word that ended up as maruvan "I will remain/dwell" appears as nimaruva, Tolkien using ni- "I" as a prefix: SD:56. (It may be, however, that the idea of subject prefixes was dropped; no post-LotR evidence of such prefixes has ever been published. If I were to use the independent pronoun ni instead of the ending -n, I would let it stand as a separate word: Ni maruva.) 
But in LotR-style Quenya, the typical function of the independent pronouns may be that these are the forms you add case endings to. We have already mentioned the dative form nin "to/for me". The pronoun lye, singular formal "you", first became known in the form lyenna. After I had written the original version of this course, I was contacted by one Bob Argent, who had bought a letter Tolkien wrote in reply to a reader: it is dated January 16th, 1968. Below his signature on the autograph card, Tolkien wrote a line in Quenya: Nai elen siluva lyenna. As I was able to tell Mr. Argent, this must mean "may a star shine upon you", with the allative ending -nna "to, upon" added to lye "you".
Another pronoun attested with case endings is ta, meaning "it" or "that" (see Etym, entry TA – the demonstrative tana "that" is of course related). Already one relatively early source suggested that it can receive case endings. The ten-word Koivienéni sentence published in Vinyar Tengwar #27 is not LotR-style Quenya in its entirety, but the short phrase Orome tanna lende (translated "Orome came thither") may well have remained a valid wording after "Qenya" evolved into Quenya as we know it from later sources. The word tanna "thither" seems to be ta "that, it" with the regular allative ending -nna attached, hence "to that [place]" = "thither". A later source also provides the locative form tassë "there" (i.e. "in that [place]"), and also the ablative talo "thence, from there", with -lo as a shorter form of the ablative ending -llo (VT49:11).
The ending -nna may also appear in the shorter form -na when added to pronouns. For "to him/her" we have both sena and senna attested (VT49:14, 45, 46).
The dative/short allative form of te "they" is somewhat variable. We might expect ten "for them" and ten(n)a "to them", and we actually have ten and téna attested (VT49:14); the latter is formed from the stressed pronoun té with a long vowel. However, the dative form also appears as tien (VT43:12, 21). Could this represent te-en, the first vowel changing to avoid two consecutive e’s?
	A pronoun receives the simplest case endings (the ones we normally call the "singular" endings) even if the pronoun is plural by its meaning. Thus the locative form of me "we, us" is messë "in us" (VT44:12), not messen with the plural locative ending. The ablative "from us" is likewise mello rather than mellon; the dative "for us" is men (VT43:18-19). 
	The dual pronouns in -t, like met "us two", would presumably receive the case endings incorporating the same dual marker t: e.g. dative ment "for us two", allative menta "to us two", ablative melto "from us two", locative metsë "in us two", etc.

In addition to receiving case endings, independent pronouns may occur following prepositions. In Namárië we have the phrase imbë met = "between us". (This is a dual pronoun, referring to Galadriel and Varda, so met appropriately receives the dual ending -t also known from nouns, to indicate that two persons are concerned. The pronoun is exclusive "we" because Galadriel is not singing to Varda; it is actually Frodo who is the primary audience.) 
	This, in fact, is the only example of a combination of a preposition and a pronoun that was published during Tolkien’s lifetime (and hence the only example that is fully "canonical"). In notes published after his death he indicated that prepositions can receive the same pronominal suffixes as verbs, e.g. milyë for "in you" (VT43:36; the preposition mi "in" is an alternative to the locative ending -ssë). However, the example imbë met would suggest that one can also let the pronoun remain separate and use mi lye for "in you".
 
At Cormallen, the crowds hailed Frodo and Sam with the words a laita te, laita te, translated in Letters:308 as "bless them, bless them". Thus we have te as an independent object pronoun "them". Incidentally, we might have expected the dual form tú here, since Frodo and Sam are only two people. In some versions of the language, Tolkien apparently associated te with the dual ending -t, giving this pronoun a dual meaning, but according to the late pronoun tables published in VT49, te is to be plural. Perhaps some of the cheering bystanders included the entire Fellowship of the Ring in their praise? 
	Anyhow, the example a laita te "bless them" suggests yet another function for independent pronouns: they can stand as the object of a verb. From our survey of the pronouns above, it seems that all of the forms listed can function as objects: ni = "me", lye = "you, thee" (formal, corresponding to the intimate form tye), se = "him/her", me "us" (exclusive, corresponding to the intimate form ve or archaic we), le "you" (pl.), te "them" (of animates; of things tai). In fact, earlier versions of this course, I assumed that tye was exclusively object "thee", but now it appears that it can also be the subject form "thou". I also mentioned nye as a possible distinct form for "me", and it may well have existed at certain stages of Tolkien’s  development of Quenya. But according to the most definite information we now have about pronouns, Tolkien in the post-LotR "phase" meant ni to be both subject "I" and object "me". 

The preferred word order is somewhat uncertain. Quenya may seem to prefer placing independent pronouns in front of the verb. Sometimes Tolkien even prefixed the object pronoun to the verb by means of a hyphen, as in the example inyë tye-méla "I love thee" cited above. (Compare French je t'aime, literally "I you love" with the object preceding the verb instead of following it – though French, as well as Quenya, normally has the object following the verb.) So perhaps sentences like "I have come to see thee" or "the people will bless them" should rather be utúlien tye-cenien and i lië te-laituva, respectively? Sometimes, Tolkien even placed dative pronouns in front of the verb, as in the question occurring in the middle of Namárië: Sí man i yulma nin enquantuva? = "Now who will refill the cup for me?" (notice how the Quenya word-order differs from that of the English translation). 
We even have one extreme example, involving the verb lumna- "lie heavy", where a dative pronoun is not only prefixed to the verb but the dative ending -n is assimilated to the initial l- of the verb itself: Mel-lumna is translated "us-is-heavy" (LR:47), sc. "is heavy for us"; this must be the dative form men "for us, to us" + the aorist form lumna "lies heavy". The underlying, unattested form men-lumna apparently had to be altered because men completely glued itself to the following word and came to be perceived as part of it – and then there was suddenly a de facto cluster nl which Quenya phonology did not permit, so it had to become l-l instead. 
Yet such extra complications are apparently avoidable, for other examples indicate that independent pronouns may also follow the verb. In VT41:13 we have the sentence órenya quéta nin = "my heart is saying to me" (variant órenya quetë nin, page 11). Presumably órenya nin quéta (or even ...nin-quéta) would have been equally possible, but it is apparently not "necessary" to employ such a word order, or indeed to prefix object/dative pronouns directly to the verb. Other examples of object pronouns following the verb include the imperative phrase a laita te "bless them" discussed above, as well as the sentence melin sé "I love him" (VT49:15).

As for the "subject forms" discussed above, they may of course appear as the subject of a sentence, like ni "I" in ni véla tye "I see you". Nonetheless, here Quenya would more frequently use pronominal endings (like vélan or vélanyë in this case – assuming that the verb ?vel- "see" is valid in LotR-style Quenya!) For poets trying to maintain some meter it may be useful to be able to choose between independent pronouns and pronominal endings. However, the "subject forms" discussed above would most often be encountered, not as grammatical subjects, but with case endings attached! Even so, it is probable that pronouns like ni or lye would frequently function as the subject of sentences when the copula "is/are/am" is left out and understood: Ni aran "I [am] king", lye halla "you [are] tall", etc.

IMPERSONAL VERBS
Having investigated independent dative forms like nin "for me, to me", we can fully understand our very few attested examples of sentences involving so-called impersonal verbs. 	In UT:396, Tolkien cites a verb óla- "to dream", adding a brief remark to the effect that this verb is "impersonal". Precisely what he meant by this was long obscure, but now we have at least one example that may be helpful in this regard.
	The sentences in question involves the primary verb or- "urge, impel, move" (elsewhere also given as an A-stem ora-). The regular aorist orë "urges, impels, moves" occurs in the sentence orë nin caritas, translated "I would like to do so" or "I feel moved to do so". Literally it means "[it] impels for me to do it". Notice that this sentence has no subject (though in our attempted literal translation, we had to fill in the dummy-subject "it" to achieve something like passable English –"it" has no real meaning here!) Quenya by its very grammatical construction indicates that the "urge" perceived by the speaker impacts on him from the outside, so to speak. Feeling moved to do something is not a deliberate "act" carried out by a subject; this feeling rather affects the person involved, and in Quenya this is appropriately denoted by the dative case. In our attested example, a dative pronoun is involved, but we must assume that it could just as well be a regular noun: Orë i Eldan lelya = "[it] impels for the Elf to go" = "the Elf feels moved to go". The verb is the first word of the sentence; normally the subject would come first, but here there simply isn't any subject.
	As for the impersonal verb óla- "to dream", we must assume that the underlying idea is the same: Dreaming is not an "act" done by a subject, rather it is something that happens to you; your dreams come to you quite independent of your own will, and therefore the dreamer is best presented as a person affected by his or her dreams: Hence dative for the dreamer! Tolkien gave us no examples involving óla-, but "the maiden dreams about Elves" could perhaps be rendered something like óla i venden Eldaron (notice that vendë "maiden" here appears as a dative form, indicating that "the maiden" is perceived as the receiver of the dreams rather than as their maker – cf. the use of the dative to denote the recipient in connection with the verb "to give").
	Such constructions, even in connection with the verb "to dream", are not unheard of in the languages of our own world. As David Kiltz wrote on the Elfling list (April 25, 2001): "The dative has many more functions than just that of an indirect object. It can...denote the 'subjective experiencer' as in...German mir ist kalt 'I'm cold' where you [would] use a nominative for the logical subject in English but not in many other languages." Mir ist kalt means "to-me [it] is cold"; the German dative form mir corresponds to Quenya nin. Given that the Quenya word for "cold" is ringa, it is entirely possible that mir ist kalt can be rendered directly into Quenya as nin ná ringa, or perhaps rather ná ringa nin "[it] is cold for me". (Update: In a 2007 publication, we find that Tolkien did translate "it is cold" as ringa ná: VT49:23. Adding a nin to express "it is cold for me", or in better English "I am cold", should be possible.)
	We don't know very many Quenya verbs that invite such constructions, though. One new example came to light in 2007. To express that someone "can" do something, one may use the impersonal verb ec- + a dative form: Ecë nin carë sa, "I can do it" (VT49:34). The more literal meaning is something like "it-is-possible for me to do it".
In the entry MBAW- in the Etymologies, Tolkien mentioned that the "Noldorin" verb bui "compel" is impersonal ("Noldorin" being the conceptual predecessor of the Sindarin language exemplified in LotR). The Quenya verb corresponding to "Noldorin" bui is given as mauya-. If this can also function as an impersonal verb (though it can probably occur with an explicit subject as well), we may have a clue as to how "I must" or "I need to" would be expressed in Quenya. Perhaps "I must go" would (or at least could) be expressed as mauya nin lelya = "[it] compels for me to go".
	In some cases, it may not even be necessary to complement an impersonal verb with a dative noun or pronoun. Regarding a "Noldorin" form of the verb corresponding to Quenya ulya- "pour", namely oeil or eil, Tolkien noted that it was used for "it is raining" (Etym, entry ULU). Again, English by grammatical necessity fills in a dummy-subject "it", but here there is obviously no real subject which actually "does" rain. Perhaps Quenya ulya (or continuative ulyëa) can likewise be used for "[it] is raining": The naked verb would be a full sentence in itself.

U-STEM VERBS
This is an obscure sub-group of verbs; having discussed U-stem nouns in the previous lesson, we may explore U-stem verbs now. Our data being very limited, there must by necessity be much speculation in this section.
	Verbal stems with the ending -u are not uncommon in Tolkien's early "Qenya" material, but as the decades went by, he may seem to have cut down their number. Of the well over 1,200 Quenya words mentioned in the Etymologies, there is only one single U-stem verb, namely palu- "open wide, spread, expand, extend" (and even this verb has an alternative form palya- with the much more common verbal ending -ya: see the entry PAL). Around 1960, in his essay Quendi and Eldar, Tolkien mentioned the verb nicu- "be chill, cold" with reference to weather (WJ:417). Some years later, he also used a few U-stem verbs in the latest version of the Markirya poem: fifíru- "slowly fade away" (elaboration of the simpler verb fir- "die, fade"), hlapu- "fly or stream in the wind", nurru- "murmur, grumble" (MC:223).
	How are these verbs to be inflected? Markirya as printed in MC:222 indicates that the active participle of hlapu- is hlápula, indicating that the active participle is formed by adding the normal ending -la and lengthening the main vowel if possible (hlapu- becoming hlápu-). The participle of nurru- "murmur" is attested as nurrula; here the vowel could not be lengthened because of the following consonant cluster (**núrrula being an impossible Quenya word).
	The passive participle is problematic. The normal ending -na or its longer variant -ina would presumably be applied somehow. Some have argued that we may have an attested example of the passive participle of a U-stem verb. We have earlier referred to the mysterious form turún' (obviously shortened from turúna) in Nienor's cry: A Túrin Turambar turún' ambartanen, "[o Túrin] master of doom by doom mastered" (UT:138). A primary verb tur- "wield, control, govern" does occur in Tolkien's material, but we would expect its passive participle to be turna or túrina (cf. carna or carina "made" as the attested passive participle of car- "make, do"). Could the strange form turúna "mastered" actually be the passive participle of a variant U-stem verb turu- "to master"? Such a verb is actually cited in PE17:113. However, is not clear why adding the ending -na to turu- would produce turúna with a long vowel.
	The infinitive is quite problematic. It ought to be a stem with no additions. In the previous lesson we pointed out that U-stem nouns originally ended in a short -u. This original vowel is preserved unchanged whenever some ending follows, but in Quenya it had turned into -o when it was absolutely final. Applying the same principle to U-stem verbs, the infinitive of palu- "expand" could conceivably be ?palo. Of course, we would still see palu- before endings, for instance if this class of verbs may also have extended forms in -ta: hence ?paluta, or with an object ending ?palutas, "to expand it".
	For the aorist we seem to have an attested example. After mentioning the U-stem verb nicu- "be chill, cold", Tolkien also cited the form niquë, which he translated "it is cold, it freezes" (WJ:417). We are apparently to understand that just as in the case of primary verbs, the ending -i was added to the U-stem as well, and that a development nicui > nicwi ensued. After the change of final short -i to -ë, this would indeed produce the attested form (nicwe =) niquë. If so, the aorist of palu- could be ?palwë, or with endings ?palwi-. However, we may wonder why U-stem verbs take the aorist ending -i when A-stems do not. This would not be encouraging for our nice little theory that the ending -i is applied to primary verbs merely as a kind of stop-gap to make up for the lack of any other ending (for U-stem verbs obviously do have another ending – the -u itself!) Indeed it was the form niquë I was thinking of when I warned the student back in Lesson Seven, "This 'simplified' view is not wholly unproblematic, but it works most of the time." We have now reached the point where it may not work anymore.
	While the aorist of palu- may plausibly be assumed to be ?palwë or with endings ?palwi-, perfectly paralleling (nicwe =) niquë as the aorist of nicu-, we can only wonder how verbs like hlapu- or nurru- would behave if they received the ending -i already in the primitive language. They could hardly evolve into **nurrwë or **hlapwë, which would be quite impossible Quenya words. Perhaps the original diphthong ui would be preserved in all positions, and we would see ?nurrui and ?hlapui with no change of -i to -ë even where the vowel is absolutely final? However, I hardly have to tell the student that we have now entered the realm of Extreme Speculation.
	For the present tense, an example has actually turned up since I first published this course. According to PE17:168, the verb nicu- can have the form níqua, translated "it is freezing". Here we see the normal lengthening of the stem-vowel and the ending -a. For nícu-a we get nícwa = níqua. Once again the final u of the stem turns to w when another vowel is added. Maybe, then, palu- "expand" has the continuative form pálwa (rather than pálua as I suggested in earlier versions of this course). But u would presumably remain a full vowel where some unpronounceable consonant cluster would arise if it were to change to w. In the very last version of the Markirya poem, Tolkien replaced one of the participles with what would seem to be a continuative stem: As is evident from Christopher Tolkien's annotation in MC:222, his father altered nurrula "mumbling, murmuring" to nurrua. Here, the continuative stem in effect functions as a participle (still meaning "mumbling"), and the revision actually seems quite pointless, but at least Tolkien gave away that the ending -a may be added to a U-stem verb. In another context, nurrua could presumably have functioned as the present tense "is murmuring".
	I wrote before, "In the past tense we can be reasonably certain that the regular past tense ending -në would be added." This has now been confirmed by PE17:168, where we learn that the past tense of nicu- is nicunë. The same pattern was already attested in the earliest material: The Qenya Lexicon of 1915 lists allunë as the past tense of the verb allu- "wash" (QL:30).
	The perfect tense is obscure. The augment (the prefixed stem-vowel) would presumably be prefixed as usual, while the vowel would – if possible – be lengthened in its normal position. So the perfect tenses of palu-, nurru- would presumably commence as apál-, unurr-. But what comes next is anybody's guess. How can the ending -ië that is associated with the perfect tense be added to a U-stem verb? Would the initial -i- of the ending merge with the final -u of the verbal stem to form a diphthong -ui-, so that we would see ?unurruië for "has murmured"? The perfect tense "has expanded" could hardly be ?apáluië, for the new diphthong ui would attract the stress and leave the syllable immediately before it completely unaccented. Then the long á could hardly survive, for there seems to be a phonological rule prohibiting a long vowel in a completely unstressed syllable unless this is also the first syllable of the word – and here it is not. Would we see ?apaluië with a short vowel, then? Or does lui go to lwi, eliminating the stress-attracting diphthong and allowing for the form apálwië? However, as we have argued earlier, the ending -ië that is used in the perfect tense apparently displaces the final -a when added to an A-stem verb, so it is entirely possible that it would also displace the final -u of a U-stem. From nurru-, palu- we would then simply see the perfect-tense forms unurrië "has murmured", apálië "has expanded". (Likely, -ië as a gerundial or infinitival ending would likewise displace the final -u, so that we could have ?nurrië for "mumbling". But "mumbling" as a mere verbal noun could almost certainly be nurrulë, though attested examples of the abstract ending -lë "-ing" involve A-stems instead.)
	In the future tense we would presumably see the usual ending -uva. However, we can only speculate as to whether the initial -u- of the ending would simply merge with the final -u of the stem, so that the future tense of palu- would be paluva, or whether the two u's would combine to form one long ú, so that we would see palúva instead.

THE VARIOUS USES OF LÁ
In Lesson Nine, we introduced the negative verb um- "not do, not be" (past tense úmë according to Etym., future tense úva according to Fíriel's Song). In all examples and exercises so far, we have used this verb + infinitive whenever a sentence is to be negated. However, using the negative verb is not the only option available in this regard. Like English, Quenya does have a separate word for "not", namely lá (or la when unstressed). This word may also be used for "no".
	The negative verb um- and the separate negation lá clearly coexist in the language, since both were listed in the Etymologies (entries UGU/UMU vs. LA). There are hardly any very specific rules for when to use one or the other. If one uses the negative verb um-, it apparently takes the relevant endings for tense and pronoun, while the verb it negates presumably appears as an infinitive: Úmen lelya, "I didn't [first person past tense] go [inf.]". If one uses the separate negation lá, the verb that is to be negated would itself receive all relevant endings, just as if no negation were present: Lenden "I went" could be negated as lá lenden = "Not I went" = "I didn't go". (Our few examples suggest that the preferred word order is to place lá before the verb that is to be negated, though for all we know, lenden lá "I went not" would also be acceptable. But one should not use an alternative word-order where ambiguity can arise; see below.)
This is obviously an easier way to negate a sentence than using the negative verb + infinitive; one simply starts with the non-negated sentence and slips in one extra word. Indeed I introduce the word lá this late in the course partly because I didn't want to "spoil" my students with this easy-to-construct negation before they had the chance to get familiar with the negative verb. In many cases, using the negative verb may seem like the more elegant method of negating sentences, and sometimes the word lá "not" should perhaps be avoided because a similar form also has a quite different function (see below). Yet in some contexts it may be best to use lá instead of the negative verb. In particular, it may seem strange to construct the verb um- as a present or "continuative" form, corresponding to the English "is ...-ing" construction. The form would be úma, but should "the Elf is not watching the Dwarf" be translated i Elda úma tirë i Nauco? I guess anything is possible, but think I would rather start with the positive sentence i Elda tíra i Nauco and negate it by slipping in lá in front of the verb: I Elda lá tíra i Nauco. Likewise, it may be best to use the negation lá in the perfect tense, especially since it is slightly uncertain what the perfect form of um- would be: ?úmië with no augment since the stem begins in a vowel, or perhaps ?umúmië with the entire initial syllable repeated? In any case, "I have not come" is perhaps best expressed as lá utúlien. Though (um)úmien tulë should be intelligible, it seems like a rather weird construction.
Translating from Quenya to English one must sometimes take care to connect the negation lá with the right verb. Notice the sentence alasaila ná lá carë tai mo navë mára, translated "it is unwise not to do what one judges good". (VT42:34; mo is there said to be an indefinite pronoun "somebody, one", apparently an alternative to quen. More obscure is the form tai: perhaps ta-i "that-which" with i as a relative pronoun directly suffixed, hence lá carë tai mo navë mára = "not to do that-which one judges good". It is not the same word as tai = "they, them" of inanimate things.) For a person used to English word order, it might be tempting to interpret the words ná lá as a connected phrase "is not" and mistranslate **"it is not unwise to do what one judges good". However, if one bears in mind that lá connects with the following verb, in this case the infinitive carë "to do", the misunderstanding can be avoided: The phrases are correctly divided as alasaila ná "unwise [it] is" + lá carë... "not to do..." (etc.)
As this example shows, lá may be used to negate infinitives as well, and another example from VT42:34 indicates that it makes no difference if the infinitive is extended with the ending -ta to receive an object suffix: lá caritas, navin, alasaila ná – literally "not to do it, I deem, unwise is". Tolkien himself offered the translation "not doing this would be (I think) unwise". In one example, Tolkien even used lá to negate an extended infinitive in -ta that has no pronominal object ending attached: lá carita i hamil mára alasaila ná, "not to do what you judge good would be [literally 'is'] unwise" (VT42:33). Here the extended infinitive carita takes on the meaning of a gerund, the entire relative sentence i hamil mára "that [which] you judge good" being its object. It seems, then, very likely that lá can also be used to negate also the more regular gerund in -ië. We have no examples, but perhaps lá carië i hamil mára... would be an equally possible wording.
As for the unstressed variant of the negation lá, namely its shorter form la, our sole certain attestation of it occurs in the sentence la navin caritalyas mára, "I don't judge your doing it good" (VT42:33; this is a way of expressing "I do not advise you to do so"). Here the main stress presumably falls on the first syllable of the verb navin "I judge", the negation la receiving no stress. One would think, however, that an important word like the negation (totally reversing the meaning of the sentence!) would normally receive some stress, and in the exercises below, I have consistently used the long/accented form lá.

The short form la would however have one thing to recommend it, namely that it would not clash with a quite distinct word lá, which is used in phrases having to do with comparison (though material appearing in Tyalië Tyellelliéva #16 seems to indicate that this second lá may also occur as a shorter form la). According to Bill Welden's article Negation in Quenya (VT42:32-34), Tolkien was indeed somewhat troubled by this clash, and for a while he actually abandoned the negation lá "no, not". However, in the last years of his life he reintroduced it, so we must live with the double function of this word. In context, it is hardly difficult to distinguish between the two lá's. 
	As Welden was the first to point out, the formula "A (ná) calima lá B" can be used for "A is brighter than B" (notice that the copula ná "is" may be left out and understood). If we want a full sentence with no algebra, we may fill in A and B to produce (say) Anar ná calima lá Isil, "[the] Sun is brighter than [the] Moon". However, this English translation differs from the actual Quenya wording in these respects: Calima is the simple adjective "bright", not the comparative form "brighter", and lá does not really mean "than". We are told that this lá is properly a preposition "beyond", so the Quenya sentence actually means "the Sun is bright beyond the Moon".
We can certainly imagine sentences including lá occurring with both its meanings: I mindon lá ná halla lá i oron, "the tower is not taller than the mountain" (literally "...tall beyond the mountain"). Here the negative verb would certainly be preferable, if only for stylistic reasons: I mindon umë halla lá i oron.

 Summary of Lesson Eighteen: In addition to the pronominal endings discussed earlier in this course, Quenya also has various independent pronouns (see Vocabulary section below). A pronoun like me "we" or "us" can receive endings for case (e.g. dative men "for us, to us", locative messë "on us") or, where two persons are concerned, dual endings (e.g. met "[the two of] us"). – Some Quenya verbs are impersonal, requiring no subject, but where someone is nonetheless affected by the verbal action, this someone can be mentioned as a dative form: Ora nin = "[it] impels for me" = "I feel moved [to do something]". – Quenya U-stem verbs, like hlapu- "fly [in the wind]", form a particularly obscure group of verbs. The past tense of such verbs is apparently formed with the ending -në. The active participle is formed by means of the normal ending -la, combined with lengthening of the main vowel of the verb (unless it has to remain short because of a following consonant cluster; thus the participle of nurru- "grumble" is simply nurrula, though the participle of hlapu- is hlápula). – The word lá has various uses. It can be used as a negation "not" (and then it is apparently placed in front of the word, usually the verb, that is to be negated). Lá is also a preposition "beyond", and as such it is used in phrases having to do with comparison: VT42:32 cites the formula "A ná calima lá B" for "A is brighter than B" (literally "A is bright beyond B" – notice that the adjective calima "bright" appears in its simplest form, with no ending corresponding to the -er of "brighter").

VOCABULARY
To cover all the attested ordinal numbers, we will introduce two at a time in this and the last two lessons.

lempëa "fifth"
enquëa "sixth"
urco (urcu-) "bogey"
lá 1) negation "not", 2) preposition "beyond", also used in comparison
ta independent pronoun "that", probably unchanged when used as object; the allative tanna may be used = "thither" (According to VT43:20, another version of Quenya uses ta as a plural pronoun "they, them" when the pronoun refers to a number of things rather than persons, but in the exercises below, ta is used in the singular sense "that" which Tolkien ascribed to it in Etym.)
palu- "to expand"
or- (also ora-) "to urge, to impel" (impersonal verb; used with a dative form to express "[someone] feels moved [to do something]")
óla- "to dream" (impersonal verb; the dreamer is apparently introduced as a dative form)

Personal pronouns:

Singular pronouns: ni "I, me", lye and tye "you = thou, thee" (lye is polite, tye intimate), se "he/him, she/her, it" (of something living), sa "it" (of something non-living). 
Plural  pronouns: me and ve (older we) "we, us" (me is exclusive, ve inclusive), le "you", te (dative ten or tien) "they, them", tai "they, them" (te refers to living beings, tai to inanimates).
Dual pronouns: met, vet "we/us two" (the latter is attested in the older form wet), let, tyet "you two" (polite/formal and intimate, respectively), tu "the two of them".

EXERCISES 
In the exercises below, we will practice the independent negation lá instead of using the negative verb. – We do not here use independent subject pronouns, only the pronominal endings discussed earlier.

1. Translate into English:

A. Utúlieltë cenien me, lá cenien tye.
B. Nai óluva lyen Eldaron!
C. Neri neldë lelyuvar tanna, ar i Naucor tiruvar te, an i neri haryar harma ya ná alta lá malta.
D. I enquëa auressë ornë tien tulë ninna.
E. I enquëa aran i nórëo ná saila lá i lempëa aran.
F. Palunes coarya, cárala sa i amalta coa i mallëo.
G. Carnelyes tien; lá carnelyes men.
H. Cennelmë lye i cilyassë nu me, an lantanelyë mir ta.

2. Translate into Quenya:

I. My right arm is stronger than my left arm.
J. Summon them to [allative] me!
K. The bogies are watching me, for I fear them [Quenya: "fear from them", ablative].
L. We [exclusive pl.] will not come to see  you [informal sg.] in the night.
M. The boy will not dream about [genitive] bogies.
N. The two women said: "Your king did not want to give us [dual dative] the things taken [or, "seized" – mapainë, pl.] from us [dual ablative] by his warriors." YYY
O. The man expanding his house is doing that (in order) to make many rooms for [dative] all his things.
P. The sixth day will be [nauva] better than the fifth day, and we [exclusive pl.] will not feel moved to leave [auta]. ["Better than" = "good beyond"!]

Additional exercises: Independent pronouns with case endings: YYY

Q. Mello. Tyent. 
R. Lyen. Tainen. 
S. Sassë. Venna. 
T. Seva. Lello. 
U. Tenen. Ninna.

V. For them (inanimate). 
W. From us (inclusive pl.)
X. For you (formal dual)
Y. By them (dual instrumental)
Z. For me

LESSON NINETEEN 
Pronouns in imperative phrases. Emphatic pronouns. Question-words: Man, mana, manen. Postpositions.

PRONOUNS IN IMPERATIVE PHRASES 
Imperative phrases may include pronominal elements. These pronouns may refer either the subject of the imperative phrase (the party that is asked or ordered to do something), or to the direct or indirect object of the requested action.
Optional subject pronouns may be slipped in to make it clear whether the speaker wants one or several persons to do something. Starting from the imperative exclamation heca! "be gone!" or "stand aside!", Tolkien noted that this word "often" appeared in an extended form "with reduced pronominal affixes of the 2nd person" (WJ:364). If a single person is the addressee of an imperative, it can receive the suffix -t (doubtless related to the singular pronoun tye "thou, thee"). So whereas the imperative heca! may be directed at one person or several, the extended form hecat! is explicitly marked as singular. It may be translated "get thee gone!" (Perhaps Fëanor's harsh dismissal of Melkor when the latter came to Formenos, translated "get thee gone from my gate" near the end of Chapter 7 of the Silmarillion, went something like hecat andonyallo in the original Quenya?) Tolkien further noted that in the plural, the simple imperative heca! could receive the ending -l, so hecal! is an order with several addressees: "Be gone, [all of] you!" This -l could be regarded as a short form of -ldë, the ending for plural “you” that was published in 2007 (carildë “they do”, VT49:16). 
There is a problem with the ending -t as a short ending for singular “you”, for in a later source, Tolkien explicitly denies that there is such an ending (VT49:51). There was only the long form -tyë, corresponding to tye as an independent pronoun. So maybe hecat “get thee gone” would be hecatyë if we were to go by Tolkien’s later insights? We may also question whether the use of -l as an ending for plural “you” was a lasting idea, for in later material, Tolkien lists -l as a shorter form of the singular ending -lyë (VT49:48). 

Hecat! sg. and hecal! pl. are our only attested examples of this use of the endings -t and -l in an imperative phrase. The imperative heca! is perhaps not a very typical imperative. As outlined in Lesson Sixteen, instead of the ending -a an independent imperative particle á (or a) is normally employed, combined with a following verbal stem. Attested examples include á vala! "rule!" and a laita! "praise!" If one wants to mark whether such an imperative is singular or plural, it may be best to add a pronominal marker to the imperative particle á, a itself. An attested Tolkien example is alyë, as in the phrase alyë anta “give thou” (VT43:17, VT44:9). If, as late material indicates, the ending -lyë is to be used for singular “you” (or “thou”) and -ldë is the ending for plural you, the command “you (pl.) give!” could be aldë anta. Possibly we could also use First Person pronouns here, to express the idea of  “let me” or “let us” do something: Anyë anta “let me give”, alvë anta “let us give” (something). 
Laita- "bless, praise" and anta- “give” are of course A-stems. Primary verbs like car- "make, do" appear with the ending -ë in such commands, as is evident from the negative imperative áva carë! "don't do [it]!" (WJ:371). This -ë almost certainly comes from an earlier -i, and before endings we would still see -i-, just as in the aorist of these verbs. In the original version of this course, I therefore suggested we might see phrases like áva carit! "don't do [it]!" (to one person), plural áva caril! "don't do [it!]" (to several persons). But since it is uncertain whether Tolkien maintained the endings -t and -l with these meanings, it may be safer to add pronominal endings to the imperative participle á, a and its negative counterpart áva instead: Ávalyë carë!  “Don’t do it!” (to one person), Ávaldë carë! “Don’t do it!” (to several people). 

An imperative phrase may also include pronominal elements referring to the direct or indirect object of the requested action. In the previous lesson we referred to various independent pronouns. Pronouns like me "us", lye “you” (sg.), le "you" (pl.), tye "thee", se “him, her”, sa "it", ta "that, it" and te "them" can all appear as independent words; indeed te "them" was first attested in an imperative phrase: A laita te, laita te! "bless them, bless them!" (from the Cormallen Praise). 
However, Tolkien's Quenya rendering of the Lord's Prayer indicates that object pronouns may also appear suffixed to the imperative particle á. The principle can be illustrated by a home-made example: Consider a simple imperative phrase like á tirë! "watch!" If we want to say "watch them", slipping in the object pronoun te, it would be possible to let it follow the verb (as in the attested example a laita te "bless them"), hence á tirë te. However, it would apparently be equally permissible to let the object pronoun come before the verb, in which case it glues itself to the imperative particle á. "Watch them!" could therefore be átë tirë! 
NOTE: Since te "them" now becomes the final syllable of a word of several syllables, the spelling conventions we have adopted require that the final -e is here spelt with a diaeresis: -ë. Since most pronouns end in the vowel -e, it would be so spelt when the pronoun is directly suffixed to á – e.g. ámë tirë "watch us".  Of course, this is just an orthographic complication that has nothing to do with the structure of the language: In many texts, Tolkien does not use the diaeresis at all.

Also dative pronouns (like nin "to/for me", men "to/for us", ten or tien "to/for them") can be directly suffixed to the imperative particle á; at least Tolkien's Quenya Lord's Prayer contains an example of men being so suffixed. A phrase like, say, "sing for us!" could thus be rendered ámen linda! 
What happens if an imperative phrase contains two pronouns, denoting both the direct and the indirect object? We have no Tolkien-made example to guide us, but the imperative particle can hardly receive more than one pronominal suffix, and the example a laita te indicates that a pronoun does not necessarily have to be suffixed to the particle. So it would certainly be permissible to let one of the pronouns, for either direct or indirect object, remain an independent word and suffix only the other pronoun to the particle á. "Do it for me!" could then be either ánin carë sa! or ása carë nin!, according to preference. (Perhaps one could also say ánin caritas!, using an extended verbal stem carita- and the suffix -s for "it".)
Tolkien's translation of "do not lead us into temptation" in his Quenya Lord's Prayer reveals that the negated form of the imperative particle ("do not!") can also receive pronominal affixes. By ca. 1960, in Quendi and Eldar, Tolkien used áva as the negative imperative, combining the particle á with the negation vá (-va). In his earlier Lord's Prayer rendering he used a slightly different word for "do not" (ála, incorporating the negation lá instead of vá), but there is no reason to doubt that pronouns denoting the direct or indirect object can be attached to the later form áva as well. So while "watch us!" could evidently be translated ámë tirë!, the negative command "don't watch us!" may probably be translated ávamë tirë!

EMPHATIC PRONOUNS 
In the previous lesson, we discussed a number of independent pronouns (also mentioned in the section above). There also exist certain other pronouns that likewise appear as separate words, though they are closely related to the corresponding pronominal endings. These words function as emphatic pronouns.
	Consider the final lines of Namárië: Nai hiruvalyë Valimar! Nai elyë hiruva! In LotR, Tolkien provided the translation "maybe thou shalt find Valimar! Maybe even thou shalt find it!" Of course, hiruvalyë means "thou shalt find" – "thou" being expressed by means of the pronominal ending -lyë. But then this is repeated as nai elyë hiruva, "maybe even thou shalt find [it]". Notice how the ending -lyë is replaced by the independent word elyë, which is obviously closely related. Elyë means simply "thou" or "you", but with special emphasis on this pronoun. Using such an independent form is like italicizing the pronoun in English: "Maybe [none other than] thou shalt find." Tolkien used the translation "even thou", adding an extra word, to bring out the emphatic quality of the pronoun. (The shorter independent word for "you, thou", lye, is apparently not emphatic.)
	Another independent emphatic pronoun is inyë "I" – or, since it is emphatic, rather "I myself" or "even I", "I and no one else". In LR:61, Herendil tells his father Elendil that he loves him, and Elendil responds in Quenya: A yonya inyë tye-méla, "and I too, my son, I love thee" (the initial a, apparently translated "and", would seem to be a variant of the more usual word ar – though a can also be a particle of address). Here the pronoun inyë, translated "I too" by Tolkien, gives special emphasis to Elendil's own identity: "I love you [just as you love me]". Inyë is more emphatic than the shorter form ni, just like elyë is more emphatic than le or lye.
	The form inyë is obviously related to the pronominal ending -nyë, and Namárië clearly demonstrates that elyë corresponds to the ending -lyë. Draft versions of Namárië have the pronoun ellë and the ending -llë instead, which Tolkien at the time used for plural “you” (Galadriel speaking to the entire Fellowship and not just Frodo, as in the final version). Material published in PE17:75 shows -lyë and -llë coexisting as the endings for sg. and pl. “you” in one version of the language. But since Tolkien later changed the ending for plural “you” from -llë to -ldë, it may be assumed that the independent emphatic pronoun would likewise change from ellë to eldë (still unattested).
It is evident from these examples that emphatic pronouns can be derived from the corresponding pronominal endings by suffixing the ending to some vowel. But what vowel? We have an e- in elyë "you" (and ellë for plural “you”), but an i- in inyë "I". In the first version of this course, I suggested that this emphatic word for "I" may be exceptional in preferring i- as its initial vowel. The student may remember that the ending for "my", -nya, seems to prefer -i- as its connecting vowel where one is required (as in atarinya "my father", LR:61). The close association of these First Person pronominal forms with the vowel i seems to reflect the stem-vowel of the most basic stem NI "I", listed in the Etymologies. 
Another form seemed to support the idea that inyë was a lone exception, and that the emphatic pronouns are regularly formed by prefixing e- to the corresponding pronominal ending, like elyë vs. the ending -lyë. This form was emmë "we”, which occurs in Tolkien’s Quenya version of the Lord’s Prayer. At the time, Tolkien used -mmë as the ending for exclusive "we". After the ending was revised to -lmë, the emphatic pronoun would presumably likewise change to elmë. (Since -mmë ended up as the ending for dual inclusive "we", emmë itself can stand with that meaning.) With some confidence we may also extrapolate elvë as the emphatic word for plural inclusive "we", since the corresponding ending is attested as -lvë (older -lwë).
But Quenya pronouns are a complicated topic, and some new emphatic pronouns that have turned up vary between e- and i- as their initial vowel. No very obvious system can be made out. Intë (VT49:48-49) seems to be an emphatic word for "they", connecting with the ending -ntë (competing with -ltë as the ending for "they" in Tolkien’s conception). The same source provides the rather curious forms ilke and inke (I don’t regularize the spelling), which seem to be meant as emphatic words for plural intimate "you". 
New forms with e- include esto, which was apparently an emphatic word for dual "you" at a time when Tolkien used -sto as the ending for dual "you" (later changed to -stë, VT49:51, so maybe we should similarly emend the emphatic pronoun to estë?) The sentence essë úpa nas "he is dumb” in PE17:126 would seem to include essë as an emphatic word for "he", and this pronoun is derived by prefixing e- to -ssë, a longer variant of -s or -së as the ending for "he, she" (VT49:49). Essë as an emphatic word for "(s)he" seems prone to confusion with essë as the noun "name", though in context they may not be difficult to tell apart. I have not constructed any exercises with essë as a pronoun, though. 

Emphatic pronouns can receive case endings; in Tolkien's Quenya rendering of the Lord's Prayer, the emphatic pronoun emmë "we" once occurs with the dative ending -n attached: Emmen. (Though this would later be elmë and elmen if we edit the material in accordance with Tolkien's revisions, these forms confirm that pronouns take the simplest case endings, that is, the ones used with singular nouns – even if the pronoun is plural by its meaning: "We" must refer to several persons, but the simplest dative ending -n is used instead of the plural form -in.) As pointed out in the previous lesson, the 1st person dative form nin "to me, for me" is particularly well attested, but if one wants to say "for me myself", "for me [and no one else]", it would be better to start from the emphatic form inyë and derive the dative form inyen.
	We have already cited the final lines of Namárië, where part of one sentence is repeated with special emphasis on the pronoun: Nai hiruvalyë Valimar! Nai elyë hiruva! From this example it appears that if a pronominal ending is replaced by an independent pronoun, the ending is removed from the verb (not nai elyë hiruvalyë with both an independent pronoun and the corresponding ending still attached to the verb). Yet in the draft version, when the pronoun elyë was still ellë, Tolkien did use precisely that system: Nai ellë hiruvallë. He apparently decided that this version was somewhat over-complete, and writers should probably avoid this system. However, such a "double" pronoun once again turns up in the sentence essë úpa nas "he is dumb" cited above, since "he" is here both the emphatic pronoun essë and the ending -s added to na- (ná) "is": "He, dumb he is".
	The verb following an emphatic pronoun should perhaps receive at least the plural ending -r if the pronoun is plural (or the dual ending -t if the pronoun is dual). If we want to transform (say) hiruvalmë "we shall find" into two words to put special emphasis on the pronoun "we", I guess the resulting phrase would be elmë hiruvar, not **elmë hiruva. The Tolkien example emmë avatyarir "we forgive" (VT43:8) obviously predates the revision -mmë > -lmë for exclusive "we", but it confirms that a plural independent pronoun should be followed by a plural verb (with ending -r).

As pointed out above, the emphatic pronouns can receive case endings, as can the shorter independent pronouns discussed in the previous lesson. It is, however, somewhat uncertain whether the endings for genitive and possessive should be added to such independent pronouns. Obviously, some kind of independent words for (say) "mine" or "yours" would be required to have a fully functional language. The ending -lya can be used to express "your", as in parmalya "your book", but how do we say "the book is yours"? 
In the original version of this course, I noted with resignation: "Published examples of Quenya provide no clues." However, I went on to present one long-standing theory: It has long been suspected that not only the subject endings that may be suffixed to verbs, but also the possessive endings that may be added to nouns (like -nya "my" or -lya "your"), have corresponding emphatic forms. This has never been explicitly confirmed. However, since the ending -lyë "you, thou" corresponds to an independent form elyë "you" (emphatic), it certainly seems plausible to assume that the ending -lya "your" could correspond to an independent form elya "yours". This word could then be used in a sentence like i parma ná elya, "the book is yours". But it could also be used for special emphasis, so that while parmalya means simply "your book", elya parma would mean "your [and no one else's] book".
	By this theory, other emphatic possessive pronouns would be erya "his, her", elva "our [inclusive]" and elma "our [exclusive]" – of course corresponding to the endings -rya, -lva, -lma. As for the independent form of the possessive pronoun "my", corresponding to the ending -nya, we would probably expect the form inya (since the subject ending -nyë corresponds to an independent form inyë).
	These extrapolations are not entirely unproblematic, though. Some of these forms actually occur in Tolkien's published writings, but with quite different meanings! Inya, for instance, is mentioned in the Etymologies – but there it is not an emphatic word for "my", it as an adjective "female", of a quite different derivation (see the entry INI). And erya, suggested above as an emphatic word for "his" or "her" (corresponding to the ending -rya), would coincide in form with the adjective erya "single, sole" (Etym, entry ERE). Noting such clashes, I wrote: "Some, no doubt, would feel that this throws considerable doubt on this whole business of extrapolating emphatic possessive pronouns to go with the attested subject pronouns. Actually I think these extrapolations are about as plausible as any forms not directly attested can be."
	I still think these forms are relatively plausible, and I would not be surprised if direct evidence for such formations will indeed turn up in Tolkien's own manuscripts. However, what has already turned up is evidence for another system, and since this system yields less ambiguous forms, it is certainly the system I would recommend to writers anyhow: Independent possessive pronouns can be derived by adding the adjectival ending -ya to the corresponding dative forms! One attested example is menya as an independent word for "our"; this is apparently derived from men "to us, for us", the dative form of me "we, us". These pronouns in -ya should agree in number like adjectives, so that menya becomes menyë (for archaic menyai) if it connects with a plural noun: In experimental variants of his Quenya Lords Prayer, Tolkien wrote menyë luhtar or menyë rohtar for "our trespasses" (VT43:19). 
Another attestation of such a possessive pronoun would seem to be ninya "my", long attested in Fíriel's Song and now understood to be derived from the dative pronoun nin "to me, for me": Indo-ninya is translated "my heart". Here ninya is suffixed to a noun just like the simpler ending -nya "my" could have been, but perhaps indo-ninya puts more emphasis on "my heart" than indonya. Undoubtedly one could also say ninya indo, fronting the pronoun.
Menya (pl. menyë) and ninya remain the sole attested possessive pronouns of such a form, but evidently we could also have pronouns like tenya "their(s)" (cf. the dative form ten "to them" in VT49:14) and lenya "your(s)", or lyenya if the pronoun is to be singular: "thy, thine". However, since these independent possessive pronouns were not well understood (indeed barely attested!) when I first wrote this course, they do not appear in any of the exercises. 

QUESTION-WORDS
Many English words frequently used in questions show an initial wh-: "who?", "what?", "where?", "which?", "whose?", "why?" etc. In Tolkien's Elvish, an initial ma- has similar connotations; he referred to the "Eldarin interrogative element ma, man" (PM:357). This "element" Tolkien seems to have borrowed from Semitic languages; cf. for instance Hebrew ma or man = "what?" (The manna of Exodus 16 is named after the question man hu'?, "what is it?" – a natural question when the Israelites suddenly found this sweet edible stuff on the ground, and a naming process which the Eldar could have appreciated!)
	We have nothing like a complete list of Elvish interrogative words, but some of them do occur in published material. Best attested is the word for "who", man, which occurs in a question in the middle of Namárië: Sí man i yulma nin enquantuva? "Now who will refill the cup for me?" Man = "who" occurs repeatedly in the Markirya poem, e.g. in the question man tiruva fána cirya[?] "Who will heed [/watch] a white ship?" (In one out of five occurrences, Markirya as printed in MC:221-222 has men instead, but this must be a misreading of Tolkien's manuscript; there seems to be no grammatical variation that could explain the variant form.) Perhaps man can receive case endings, so that we can have (say) the genitive form mano = "whose?"
	If man is "who" (referring to people), what is the word for "what" (referring to things)? In LR:58, Tolkien apparently lets man cover "what?" as well: Man-ië? is translated "what is it?" This is hardly LotR-style Quenya; the ending -ië = "is" was almost certainly abandoned later. Fíriel's Song also uses man in the sense of "what": Man...antáva nin Ilúvatar[?] = "What will the Father [Ilúvatar, God] give me?" Whether Tolkien at one point intended man to mean both "who" and "what", or whether he simply changed his mind back and forth regarding the precise meaning of man, cannot be determined now. Turning to a post-LotR source, we find the question mana i·coimas Eldaron[?], which is translated "what is the coimas ["life-bread" = Sindarin lembas] of the Eldar?" (PM:395; a variant reading occurs in PM:403). How are we to interpret this word mana, that would seem to correspond to "what is" in the translation? It could be a word ma "what" (which would be a direct borrowing from Hebrew!) + the copula ná "is", here directly suffixed and shortened to -na. However, the form ma is known to have at least two other, different meanings in Quenya (see the next lesson), so I tend to doubt that Tolkien intended it to mean "what?" as well. Rather mana is simply a word for "what", and there is no explicit copula "is" in the sentence mana i·coimas[?]  = "what [is] the life-bread?" It may be that mana "what" can receive case-endings. Published material provides no word for "why?", but by one suggestion we can work around this gap by adding the dative ending -n to mana – the resulting form manan meaning literally "what for?"
By its form, mana resembles the demonstratives sina "this", tana "that" and yana "that (yonder)". Since vanda sina means "this oath" (UT:305, 317), perhaps vanda mana? would mean "what oath?" or "which oath?" Mana vanda? would rather mean "what [is] an oath?", given Tolkien's example mana i·coimas[?] = "what [is] the life-bread?"
The same late document that provides this example also includes a word for "how?", appearing as part of the question manen lambë Quendion ahyanë[?] = "How did the language of Elves change?" (PM:395). Interestingly, this word manen "how?" seems to include the instrumental ending -nen, added to the "interrogative element" ma- (PM:347). Manen could mean, literally, "what by?" (it may even be a contraction of mananen for all we know). It seems highly plausible that other case endings than that of the instrumental can be added to ma-. Perhaps we can have locative massë? "where?", ablative mallo "whence?/where from?" and manna "whither?/where to?", filling further gaps in our vocabulary. However, the exercises below only involve the attested forms man "who?", mana "what?" and manen "how?"

POSTPOSITIONS
We have introduced various prepositions, such as nu "under", or "over" or ve "as, like". Prepositions are so called because they are typically "positioned" before (pre) the word(s) they connect with. In Quenya and English alike, one would say nu alda "under a tree" – not **alda nu "a tree under". (Of course, the word order may be quite garbled in poetry, as when the LotR version of Namárië has Vardo tellumar nu luini "Varda's domes under blue" for "under Varda's blue domes". Here, we are rather discussing the normal, non-poetic word order.)
	There are also postpositions, similar in function to the prepositions, but coming after (post) the word or words they connect with. In English, the word ago may be seen as a postposition, since it comes at the end of phrases like "three years ago". Some languages would use a preposition instead, expressing this meaning by a wording similar to "before three years". Interestingly, a word simply glossed "ago" is mentioned in the Etymologies: Yá. It is not mentioned or exemplified elsewhere in published material, and since its English gloss is all we have to go on, we may assume that yá is a postposition in Quenya as well. If so, "three years ago" could be translated directly as loar neldë yá.
	At an older stage, Elvish apparently had many postpositions. Tolkien stated that at the oldest stage, "prepositional" elements were normally "attached" – apparently meaning suffixed – to noun stems (WJ:368). Many of the Quenya case endings Tolkien clearly meant to represent originally independent elements that had merged into the noun they followed. For instance, the ending -nna for allative is obviously related to the preposition na or ana, likewise meaning "to, towards". Yet Quenya had at least a few postpositions that had not evolved into case endings, but still appeared as independent words. Whereas yá discussed above is only attested as an isolated word mentioned in Etym, the word pella "beyond" appears in actual Quenya texts, and it does seem to be a postposition. Namárië has Andúnë pella for "beyond the West", and this is apparently not just another example of a poetic word order, for Tolkien did not alter this phrase in his prose version of the song. (The word Andúnë "West" is an alternative to the more usual word Númen. Andúnë may also be defined as "sunset" or even "evening".) Pella is used as a postposition in the Markirya poem as well, where it connects with a noun inflected for plural ablative: Elenillor pella is translated "from beyond the stars" (literally "from stars beyond").
	In the original version of this course, I wrote: "Whether pella could also be used as a preposition, just like its English gloss 'beyond', is impossible to say." Now it is known that in one draft for his Quenya Lord's Prayer, Tolkien did use the wording i ëa pell' Ëa, evidently = "who is beyond Ëa" (i.e. Eä, the created universe – VT43:13). A rather drastic circumlocution for "who art in heaven", this phrase does seem to use pella (shortened pell') as a preposition. But this was just an experimental wording which Tolkien soon abandoned; he replaced pell' with han, evidently a quite different word for "beyond". Perhaps this was precisely because he wanted pella to be a postposition only (and since i ëa Eä pella would sound rather awkward, he had to use another word!) Yet another word for "beyond", the lá that is also used in comparison, does seem to be a preposition (and perhaps the final syllable of pella is meant to be related to this lá). Even so, I would use pella as a postposition only, employing the word order observed in Namárië and Markirya alike. 

Summary of Lesson Nineteen: Imperative phrases may in various ways include pronouns. If an order has one single addressee, the ending -lyë "thou" may be added to the imperative particle á, a-; we here assume that the ending -ldë for plural "you" can be used in the same way.  Pronouns denoting the direct or indirect object of the imperative may also glue themselves to the imperative particle á. – The (long forms of the) pronominal subject endings that may be suffixed to verbs may also be used to derive independent emphatic pronouns, usually formed by prefixing e- to the ending. For instance, the subject ending -lyë "you, thou" corresponds to the independent emphatic pronoun elyë "(even) thou". The emphatic word for "I", corresponding to the ending -nyë, however shows i- rather than e- as its initial vowel: inyë. – Quenya interrogative words apparently show an initial ma-; attested examples are man "who", mana "what" and manen "how". – Postpositions are similar in function to prepositions, but follow rather than precede the word(s) they connect with. The word pella "beyond" seems to function as a postposition; Namárië has Andúnë pella (not ?pella Andúnë) for "beyond the West". The word yá is glossed "ago" (Etym, entry YA), so perhaps it functions as a postposition just like its English gloss.

VOCABULARY

otsëa "seventh"
toltëa "eighth" (In a late document Tolkien actually changed this form to toldëa: VT42:25, 31. Apparently he considered changing the word for "8" from tolto to toldo. We may accept toldo "8" and toldëa "8th" as valid variants, but in the exercises below I prefer toltëa  – to go with tolto, the form of the word "8" as listed in the Etymologies.)
inyë "I" (emphatic pronoun)
elyë "you, thou" (emphatic singular pronoun) (At one stage ellë was the emphatic word for plural “you”, but since Tolkien changed the corresponding ending from -llë to -ldë, the emphatic pronoun may likewise have changed from ellë to eldë.)
elmë "we", exclusive (emphatic pronoun) (This form is not directly attested, but "updated" from the earlier form emmë; Tolkien eventually changed the ending for exclusive "we" from -mmë to -lmë)
elvë "we", inclusive (emphatic pronoun). (Not directly attested, but extrapolated from the ending -lvë.)
man "who?"
mana "what?" (according to one interpretation of the sentence where this word occurs)
manen "how?"
pella "beyond" (postposition)
yá "ago" (postposition like its English gloss?)
írë "when"

NOTE on the word írë "when": This is (almost certainly) not an interrogative word, despite its English gloss. A question like "when will you come?" can hardly be translated **írë tuluvalyë? No Quenya word for "when?" as a genuine question-word has been published, though it may be possible to work around this gap – for instance, we could use a circumlocution like lú mana(ssë)? = "(at) what time?" The word írë is used for "when" in the sense that it introduces information about when something occurs; it is attested in Fíriel's Song. The relevant phrases are not quite LotR-style Quenya, but the use of írë may be noted all the same: Yéva tyel ar i-narquelion, irë ilqua yéva nótina = "there will be an end and the Fading, when all is counted"; man...antáva nin Ilúvatar...írë Anarinya queluva? = "what will the Father give me...when my Sun faileth?" 
A later source gives yá as a word for "when" (VT49:23: yá hrívë tenë, ringa ná "when winter comes, it is cold”), but since this can be confused with yá "ago", I have maintained írë here.  It has been suggested that the initial í- of írë is related to the definite article i "the", whereas the final -rë can be equated with the word ré "[24-hour] day" (the word aurë refers to the daylight period only). If so, írë basically means "the day" – and of course, "what will the Father give me...the day my Sun faileth" would still make sense. However, it may seem that the word írë "when" existed long before the noun ré "day"; the latter apparently emerged as Tolkien was writing the LotR Appendices. I wouldn't hesitate to use írë for "when" in general (not limiting its application to "the day when...")

EXERCISES
As described above, Tolkien sometimes added extra words when translating emphatic pronouns, e.g. elyë = "even thou" (to bring out the emphatic quality of the word). However, in the keys to the exercises below, as well as in the "Translate into Quenya" section, we have adopted the simpler system of italicizing emphatic pronouns (e.g. elyë = you):

1. Translate into English:

A. Man marnë i coassë loar quëan yá, írë inyë lá marnë tassë?
B. Mana elvë polir carë?
C. Ása anta nin, ar ávalyë nurta sa nillo!
D. Man elyë cennë i otsëa auressë?
E. Antuvaltë ilyë i annar inyen ar lá elyen!
F. Mana i neri hirner i nóressë i oronti pella?
G. Manen elyë poluva orta i alta ondo írë inyë úmë polë caritas?
H. Nésalma marë coa entassë; elmë marir i toltëa coassë mallë sinassë. Aldë tulë ar cenë coalma!

2. Translate into Quenya:

I. Who has done that [ta]?
J. What did you find in the seventh room when you went there [or, "thither" = tanna]?
K. When you have come, I want to leave [auta].
L. Give us the wine! (an order explicitly addressed to several persons).
M. Give the wine to us and not [lá] to the warriors! ("Us" is exclusive here. "To" = dative, not allative. This order is explicitly addressed to one person only.)
N. The seventh warrior has come from beyond the great mountains.
O. Beyond [or, behind] the eighth door [or, "gate", ando] you found a great treasure; we [exclusive] who came after you [apa lye] did not find a thing!
P. How did the evil Dwarves find them seven days ago?

LESSON TWENTY
The verb "to be". Ma as a possible interrogative particle. The particle i  introducing nominal clauses. The future-past tense.

In the original version of this course, I used this final regular lesson to address some issues that were highly obscure at the time, setting out my thoughts and theories. Later publications have luckily thrown more light on at least some of these things, and I will here present some of this information.  

THE VERB "TO BE" 
(including some remarks on the form ëa)

The various forms of the verb "to be" used to be very problematic, and the lack of information on such an elementary topic was often felt by writers. When I first wrote this course, the forms known were ná "is", nar "are" and nauva "will be", and all of these we have mentioned and practiced. In 2007, more became known. 
	To start with the infinitive "to be" itself, the best we have to go on is a remark of Tolkien’s that appeared in Parma Eldalamberon #17, page 68. Here he mentions the "general infinitive" (or gerund) that has the ending -ië, which was already known when I wrote this course. A new piece of information is that an alternative ending -vë is used after "vowel stems", apparently meaning one-syllable verbal stems ending in a vowel, such as NĀ "be" itself. Tolkien mentions the form návë, translated "being", but since this is to be an example of a "general infinitive", we must assume that it could also be translated "to be". Presumably we can use this word to construct sentences like návë alya ná mára, "being [or: to be] rich is good". Maybe it can also be used for "to be" in a sentence like "I want to be an Elf", so that we would see merin návë Elda.
	The present-tense form ná "is" was published in the LotR itself, but it was long unclear whether it can take pronominal endings like any other verb. In January 2002, the example nalyë "thou art" was finally published in VT43:27, suggesting that this is indeed possible. In VT49 (p. 27, 30) we finally had many forms of "to be" with pronominal endings: nányë or nanyë "I am", nalyë or natyë "you (sg.) are" (-lyë is polite and formal, -tyë intimate and familiar), nás "it is" (probably also "he/she is"), násë a distinctly personal "(s)he is", as well as nalmë "we are" (according to Tolkien’s more-or-less final vision of the pronoun table, this is an exclusive "we"; the form with inclusive "we" is not given but would surely be nalvë). 
	In some forms, Tolkien slipped in an extra vowel i before the pronominal ending, e.g. nailyë rather than nalyë for "you are" (VT49:27). It may be that this is to represent the aorist tense, as if Tolkien wanted a distinction between the present tense and the aorist even in the verb "to be" ("is being" vs. a simple "is"?) But elsewhere he calls nalyë and similar forms "aorist", so this may not have been a lasting idea (VT49:30). 
	The form násë for "(s)he is" contains a longer form of the normal ending for "he, she", -së instead of -s. Compare se as the independent pronoun. (Another version even has nassë with a double ss, VT49:30.) Except for this násë, forms of "is" (am, are) with pronominal endings typically have a short vowel, na- instead of ná- (though we have both nányë and nanyë attested for "I am".)
	Perhaps the verb ná can even receive two pronominal endings, for subject and predicate, e.g. nanyes = "I am he". (Compare the Tolkien-made form utúvienyes = "I have found it", the second ending denoting the object.) 
	Instead of adding pronominal endings to the copula na-, one may also simply use an independent pronoun and leave out the copula altogether: it is understood. When translating "blessed art thou" in his Quenya rendering of the Hail Mary, Tolkien simply wrote aistana elyë, sc. aistana "blessed" immediately followed by the pronoun elyë "thou". There is no copula "art" in the Quenya text. So we can apparently feel free to build copula-less sentences like inyë Elda "I [am] an Elf" or elyë vanya "you [are] beautiful". The shorter, less emphatic pronouns would presumably work just as well: Ni Elda "I (am) an Elf", lye vanya "you (are) beautiful”, etc. 
	Yet we can't always do without the verb "to be", and another problem had to do with the past tense "was": It was long unattested. In the original version of this course, I noted that the "regular" past tense form would be nánë, but I found it improbable. However, Tolkien apparently did not mind making the verb "to be" remarkably regular, and the form nánë has since turned up in his writings. It does however alternate with the shorter form né, apparently related to the past tense ending -në. One special thing about this verb is that pronominal endings are not added to né, but rather to the alternative form ane-, e.g. anen "I was", anel "you were" (a longer form anelyë may be equally possible), and anes "(s)he was" or "it was". Tolkien was however not wholly consistent about this, for in one source, "he was" appears as nésë rather than anes (VT49:28-29). Compare násë for "he is" in the present tense.
	The perfect tense of "to be" is now attested as anaië "has been", still a hypothetical form when I first wrote this course (VT49:27). The future was already known to be nauva "will be". (In VT49:30, Tolkien mentions uva as the future tense, as if the future-tense ending used on verbs can function independently for "will be" – but since this is too easily confused with úva "will not be", I would go for nauva.) The imperative "be!” can be either na (in VT43:14 we have na airë "be holy") or á na with the express imperative participle (PE17:58). 
With the short endings -r (used where the subject is plural) or -t (with a dual subject) we have the present tense nár or nar "are", nát "are" (dual), past tense náner or nér "were", dual nét (VT49:6, 10, 30). We must assume that the endings -r and -t can also be added to the future tense nauva and the perfect form anaië, where the subject is either plural or dual. 

In addition to the various forms of ná, there is also another verb having to do with the concept of "being", namely ëa (or with a capital E, Eä). 
Readers of the Silmarillion will remember this word from Tolkien's creation myth. God, Eru Ilúvatar, grants objective existence to the Music of the Ainur with this word: "I know the desire of your minds that what ye have seen should verily be...even as ye yourselves are, and yet other. Therefore I say: Eä! Let these things Be!" (Ainulindalë). Tolkien explained that Eä as a name of the universe is not originally a noun, but actually a verb: "The Elves called the World, the Universe, Eä – It is" (footnote in Letters:284). "This world, or Universe, [the Creator] calls Eä, an Elvish word that means 'It is' or 'Let it Be' " (MR:330).
So ëa can be either the present (or aorist) tense "[it] is" or the imperative "let it be!" (In the latter sense it would parallel such one-word imperatives in -a as heca! "be gone!" or ela! "look!") How does ëa "is" differ in meaning from ná? It has been suggested that one of these verbs means "is" referring merely to some particular instance, while the other refers to a permanent or habitual state. In a sentence like "the man is drunk", one word for "is" would simply indicate that "the man" is drunk right now, whereas the other would imply that he is a drunkard by habit. Parallels to such a system can be found in Spanish (a language Tolkien loved).
Given the extreme scarcity of source material, nothing can be ruled out at this stage, but I would put my money on another theory. It should be noted that Tolkien translated ëa not only as "is", he also used the rendering "exists" (VT39:7). This suggests that ëa has a more absolute meaning than ná. The verb ëa is related to the noun engwë "thing", a "thing" being perceived as "something that exists". It may be that ná is a mere copula used in phrases describing the state of something, introducing a noun (sambë sina ná caimasan "this room is a bedchamber"), an adjective (sambë sina ná pitya "this room is small") or even a prepositional phrase (sambë sina ná ve i sambë yassë hirnenyet, "this room is like the room where I found them"). On the other hand, ëa refers to the solid, independent existence or presence of some subject, and it can perhaps be used with no other additions than this subject. 
In earlier versions of this course, I constructed the example Eru ëa "God exists", and it now turns out that this very sentence occurs in Tolkien’s material as well (VT49:36). He then struck it out, noting that the verb ëa only refers to something that "exists" within the created world (itself called Eä!), so the verb should not be used of the Creator. But this may seem to be a fine distinction only made by the "loremasters", for in other examples, ëa is indeed used with Eru as subject (see below concerning Cirion’s Oath).
  Tolkien informs us that the word ëala, by its form obviously the active participle of ëa, was also used as a noun "being" – denoting a spirit whose natural state is to exist without a physical body. Balrogs, for instance, were ëalar (MR:165). Basically, the word only refers to "existing" ones. At the beginning of a sentence, the verb ëa may possibly be used in the same sense as English "there is", to assert the existence or presence of something: Eä malta i orontissen "[there] is gold in the mountains", ëa nér i sambessë "[there] is a man in the room", ëar nissi neldë i coassë, "[there] are three women in the house". 
However, all the sentences in the previous paragraph were constructed by me. One of our very few Tolkien-made examples of ëa occurring in an actual sentence forms part of Cirion's Oath. Eä turns up as the verb of a relative sentence: i Eru i or ilyë mahalmar ëa tennoio, "the One [God] who is above all thrones forever". Since the literal meaning could well be that Eru exists in this sublime position, this does not contradict the interpretation set out above. In his translation of the Lord's Prayer, Tolkien rendered "[our Father] who is in heaven" as ...i ëa han ëa, which apparently is not a direct translation of the traditional wording. It has been theorized that this means "[our Father] who is beyond Eä", sc. beyond the created universe, though the second ëa is not capitalized as a name in Tolkien's text. The first ëa is certainly the verb "is". 
It should be noted that ëa, rather than ná, is the verb to use when describing the position of something (the position being specified either by a phrase including a preposition, like or ilyë mahalmar "above all thrones" or han ëa "beyond Eä" [?] in the sentences above, or by a noun appearing in the locative case). Perhaps we could have sentences like i sambë yassë ëa i harma ëa or i sambë yassë ëa i nér sí "the room where the treasure is, is above the room where the man is now" – referring not so much to mere states as to existence, presence, position. This is the best the present grammarian can do with so few examples. 
It was originally uncertain how ëa is inflected, but in 2007 the principal forms were published in VT49:29: After noting that the form ëa covers both the present and the aorist tenses, Tolkien listed the tense-forms: future euva "will exist", past tense engë "existed" and perfect tense engië "has existed". The latter form is influenced by the past tense; the historically correct perfect tense should be éyë, but it had come to be "rare".
Engë as the past tense of ëa may seem like a rather surprising form, but it is historically justified: Tolkien apparently meant ëa to represent primitive eñā, the symbol ñ representing the ng of English king. In Quenya, this sound had been lost between vowels. However, the past tense had been formed by means of nasal infixion, and before ñ the infix manifested as another ñ. Thus we get eññ-, and this double ññ later became Quenya ng (as in English finger, with a distinct g sound): Thus the past tense of ëa came to be engë. Only one other verb of this class is known, tëa "indicate" with past tense tengë (see VT39:6-7).
The verb ëa can presumably receive pronominal endings like any other verb, e.g.  ëan "I exist",  ëalmë "we exist", enges "it existed", etc.

MA: AN INTERROGATIVE PARTICLE?
In the previous lesson, we introduced the words man "who?", mana "what?" and manen "how?" They can be used to construct certain kinds of questions,  but the commonest kind of question is not exemplified in published material: How do we construct the kind of question that may be answered with a simple "yes" or "no"?
	English uses various procedures to get from a simple assertion to a question about whether something is actually true. Assertions like "it is so" or "he has come" can be turned into a questions by fronting the verb: "Is it so?", "Has he come?" However, in contemporary English, this procedure only works with a few verbs. An assertion like "he wrote the book" is turned into a question by adding a form of the verb "to do" at the beginning of the sentence and turn what used to be the finite verb into an infinitive: "Did he write the book?"
	Obviously, the simplest way of turning an assertion (a declarative statement) into a question would be to simply slip in some kind of particle that merely signals, "This is not an assertion that something is so and so, but a question about whether it is so and so." Many languages of our own world do employ such particles (e.g. Polish czy), and this simple and elegant way of constructing yes/no questions seems to have considerable appeal to language-constructors as well. Esperanto has the interrogative particle ĉu (ĉ is pronounced like English ch), apparently based on the Polish word, and the sentence "he wrote the book" – li skribis la libron – is turned into a question "did he write the book?" simply by adding ĉu at the beginning: Ċu li skribis la libron?
But what about Quenya? Still clinging to this example, how do we turn the declarative statement tences i parma "(s)he wrote the book" into a question? Does Quenya have an interrogative particle we can slip in?
In PM:357, quoted in the previous lesson, Tolkien refers to ma or man as an "Eldarin interrogative element" (PM:357). Man is the Quenya word for "who", but may the shortest possible "interrogative element" ma function as an interrogative particle? Some writers have made this assumption. It may be noted that one Quenya verb for "ask" is maquet- (past tense maquentë, PM:403). Since maquet- transparently means "ma-say", it may be suspected that in some way or another, Quenya questions often involve the element ma.
It has come to my knowledge that there is a Tolkien manuscript which does refer to ma as an interrogative particle. If Tolkien meant a particle like Polish czy or Esperanto ĉu, we may apparently turn a declarative statement into a yes/no question simply by slipping in a ma, most likely at the beginning of the sentence (no attested examples):

Tences i parma "(S)he wrote the book" > Ma tences i parma? "Did (s)he write the book?"
Nís enta ná Elda "That woman is an Elf" > Ma nís enta ná Elda? "Is that woman an Elf?"
Eä malta i orontessë "[There] is gold in the mountain" > Ma ëa malta i orontessë? "Is [there] gold in the mountain?"
I nér caruva coa "The man is going to build a house" > Ma i nér caruva coa? "Is the man going to build a house?"

Conceivably ma might also be used in so-called dependent questions, with the force of English "whether": Umin ista ma utúlies, "I don't know whether (s)he has come." This is speculation, however, and it must be emphasized that we have yet to see the interrogative particle ma in any actual Quenya sentence written by Tolkien. The manuscript in which he refers to ma as an interrogative particle is apparently quite early, so this particle may well belong to some variant of "Qenya" rather than the more LotR-compatible forms of Quenya. 
Even assuming that the system I presupposed when constructing the examples above does indeed correspond to Tolkien's intentions at some stage, he may very well have decided upon something else later. Indeed certain fragments of post-LotR Quenya material includes a word ma of a quite different meaning: it functions as an indefinite pronoun "something, a thing" (VT42:34). Whether this implies that ma as an interrogative particle had been abandoned is impossible to say (PM:357 at least confirms that ma as an interrogative "element" survived into the post-LotR period). Whether the two ma's can coexist in the same version of Quenya is a matter of taste, unless it turns out that Tolkien actually addressed this question in some manuscript (and I wouldn't hold my breath). Presently, the system sketched above is probably the best we can do when it comes to constructing yes/no questions in Quenya.
Questions may apparently also be indicated just by the tone of voice: Ecë nin? "May I?" (VT49:20).

I INTRODUCING NOMINAL CLAUSES
We have introduced several words that may be translated "that": the pronoun ta and the demonstratives enta and tana (tanya).
There is, however, another kind of "that" as well – very common in any substantial text. We are talking about "that" as a particle introducing so-called nominal clauses.
As we know, nouns can take on various functions in a sentence. Very often they appear as the subject or object of a verb, as when the noun Elda "Elf" functions as the object of the verb ista- "know" in the sentence istan Elda "I know an Elf". Sometimes, however, it is useful to treat an entire sentence as a noun, so that it can take on noun-like functions in a sentence. Consider a simple sentence like "you are here". If we want to treat this sentence as a noun and slip it into a longer sentence to function as (say) the object, English may signal the noun-like status of the words "you are here" by placing the word "that" in front of them: "That you are here". Now this entire phrase, a so-called nominal clause, can function as the object of a verb: "I know that you are here". It could also be used as the subject of a sentence, as in "that you are here is good". (But in the latter case, English would often prefer to slip in a meaningless dummy-subject "it" at the beginning of the sentence and place the true subject at the end: "It is good that you are here.)
What, then, is the Quenya equivalent of "that" as a particle forming such nominal clauses?
In the original version of this course, I suggested sa, which occurs in a Quenya sentence said to come from a letter of Tolkien’s. However, the source is obscure and not everybody is even convinced it is genuine. Anyway, new examples finally became available in 2007, in some sentences published in VT49:27-28. Discussing the verb sav- “believe”, Tolkien noted that with a noun as object it means to believe that something really exists or existed, as in: savin Elessar ar i nánë aran Ondórëo "I believe that Elessar really existed and that he was a King of Gondor. "
So here i is used for "that", and this is confirmed by a second example, [savin] i Ele[s]sarno quetië naitë, "[I believe] that Elessar’s words [literally: speaking] (are) true". Tolkien did not write out the entire sentence, and one S may seem to have dropped out from the genitive form of Elessar, but again we see i used for "that".
The particle nai "be it that", used in wishes, appears to be na "be!” (imperative of ná) plus i "that".
Now i is already both the definite article "the" and the relative pronoun "(those) who", so the word may seem overloaded when it is also to be used for "that" as a conjunction forming nominal clauses. Tolkien apparently did not see this as a problem. When forming sentences with i "that", one should aim for clarity by making sure that the following word is not one that can take the article "the". It can be a proper name, like in the second Tolkien example above (the genitive Elesarno), or a noun that is already determined by a pronominal suffix. If we construct a sentence like istan i atarinya oantië "I know that my father has left", we know that this i must be "that" introducing a nominal clause, since "the my father" would (presumably) be ungrammatical. In many cases it may be best to let the verb of the clause immediately follow i, e,g, istan i hirnë Nauco harma sinomë "I know that a Dwarf found a treasure here". In this way one can also avoid a clash of two i’s, one meaning "that" and the other "the" (that is, istan i hirnë i Nauco harma rather than the dubious wording istan i i Nauco hirnë harma for "I know that the Dwarf found a treasure"). A sentence like istan i Nauco utúlië may seem ambiguous – is this "I know that a Dwarf has come" or "I know the Dwarf has come"? I would go for the wording istan i utúlië Nauco if the former meaning is intended, and istan i utúlië i Nauco if the meaning is "I know that the Dwarf has come". If one generally lets the verb follow i "that", it is relatively easy to keep this particle apart from the article "the" and the relative pronoun "(those) who”.
In (slightly archaic) English, a "that"-clause may describe an intention; here is a Tolkienian example: "The titles that [the Vala Oromë] bore were many and glorious; but he withheld them at that time, that the Quendi should not be afraid" (WJ:401; modern idiom would slip in a "so" before "that", but the meaning remains the same). It would be interesting to know whether a Quenya i-clause can be used in this sense. If not, we do not really know how to express this meaning in Quenya.

THE FUTURE-PAST TENSE
We rarely have evidence for wholly new tenses, but in VT45:32 there suddenly turned up an example of the future-past, a tense expressing the idea of "was going to do" something. It has the ending -umnë, as in matumnë "was going to eat" (VT48:32). Tolkien actually translated this as "I was going to eat", but no pronominal element meaning "I" seems to be present. Matumnen might express this idea, and so on with all the different pronominal endings. I would also assume that the normal endings -r and -t would be added to -umne- where the subject of the verb is either plural or dual.
	Matumnë is the only example we have of the "was going to"-tense, but since its ending is related to the future-tense ending -uva, I would assume that it behaves much like it. It may then displace a final -a of a verbal stem, e.g. lantumnë "was going to fall" from lanta- "fall".

Summary of Lesson Twenty: The verb "to be" has these principal forms: The present tense ná "is" (often short na- when some ending follows) can receive the various pronominal endings: nanyë "I am", nalyë "you are" etc. The past tense "was" appears both as nánë and né, but the form ane- is preferred when a pronominal ending is to follow (anen "I was", etc.) Instead of using forms of "to be" with a pronominal ending attached, it is also permissible to use an independent pronoun and leave out the copula altogether (cf. a wording like aistana elyë "blessed [art] thou" in Tolkien's Hail Mary translation). Another verb also translated "is" is ëa (past tense engë, perfect engië, future euva), which more properly means "exists": it would be used for "is" in contexts discussing the presence, existence or position of something (in the latter case ëa may connect with a prepositional phrase, as in the attested example i or ilyë mahalmar ëa "[God,] who is above all thrones"). – According to certain pieces of evidence, Quenya (or at least some variant of "Qenya") had an interrogative particle ma. Presumably it can be added (at the beginning?) of declarative statements to turn them into yes/no questions. – The word i can be used for "that" as a particle introducing nominal clauses (as in "I know that you are here", "he said that this is true", etc.) It may be best to let the verb immediately follow it, so that it cannot be confused with the definite article "the" (also i). – The future-past tense has the ending -umnë, expressing the idea of "was going to" do something.

VOCABULARY

nertëa "ninth"
quainëa "tenth"
ma, possible interrogative particle
i, "that" introducing nominal clauses
nómë "place"
sinomë "in this place" or simply "here" (apparently combining si- as in sina "this" with -nomë, a shortened form of nómë "place", hence sinomë = "[in] this place")
tenna preposition "until, as far as"
ëa verb "is" = "exists" (past tense engë, future tense perhaps euva)
mal conjunction "but"
nánë, né "was" (but ane- with pronominal endings)
ista- "to know" (notice irregular past tense sintë instead of **istanë; the perfect "has known" is likewise isintië, PE17:77)
lerta- "can" in the sense of "be allowed to" (English often uses "may" in this sense; see note below)

NOTE #1: Quenya has several verbs corresponding to English "can". As explained in a Tolkien manuscript published in VT41, at least three Quenya verbs can be used to express the idea of "be able to". The verb pol- that we have introduced earlier primarily means to be physically able to do something (cf. the adjective polda "[physically] strong", apparently related to this verb). The verb lerta- means to be allowed to do something, to be free to do something because there is no prohibition – though in some contexts it may also be interchangeable with pol-. The verb ista- "to know" (pa.t. sintë) may be combined with an infinitive to express "can" in the sense of "know how to", referring to intellectual ability. Thus istas tecë would mean "he can write [because he knows the letters of the alphabet]". Polis tecë would be "he can write" in the sense of "he is physically able to write [because his hands are not paralysed or tied up or something]". Lertas tecë would mean "he can write" in the sense of "he may [= is allowed to] write".

NOTE #2: Above I listed mal as the Quenya conjunction "but". Actually many words for "but" appear in Tolkien's material, indeed so many that it seems dubious whether he really meant them to belong to a single form of Quenya. The Etymologies, entry NDAN, lists ná or nán as Quenya words for "but". Firiel's Song uses the short form nan (LR:72), a word many post-Tolkien writers have also used. However, ná also means "is", and nán or nan might perhaps also mean "I am". Other words for "but" turn up in various tentative Quenya renderings of the Lord's Prayer: anat, onë, ono (VT43:8-9); yet another late source has nó (VT41:13). However, nó may also mean "before", and the forms anat, onë and ono were perhaps superseded by the word Tolkien used for "but" in the final version of his Lord's Prayer rendering: Mal. Of all the words for "but" that have so far been published, mal strikes me as the least ambiguous, and this is the word here used.

EXERCISES

1. Translate into English:

A. Elyë Nauco, lá Elda.
B. Cennen i nánë i nero ranco rácina.
C. I aran né taura, mal i tári né saila lá i aran.
D. Ma sintelyë i nu i coa ëa nurtaina harma?
E. Ma lertan lelya nómë sinallo?
F. Áva sucë, an ëa sangwa yulmalyassë!
G. Ma engelyë sinomë i quainëa auressë?
H. Istalmë i ëa nulda sambë coa sinassë, mal lá ihírielmes, ar tenna hirilmes úvalmë ista mana ëa i sambessë.

2. Translate into Quenya (for convenience using L-forms rather than T-forms to translate "you"):

I. I was rich [several possible translations].
J. The king said: "You may not go to the place whence [yallo] you have come", but I know that I will go thither [tanna].
K. I can [= know how to] read, but I cannot read in the darkness, and the lamps [calmar] are broken.
L. We (incl.) know that Elves exist.
M. Did they dwell [mar-] here until the ninth year when the warriors came?
N. We (excl.) know that the men could speak the Elven-tongue [Eldalambë], but not the Dwarf-tongue [Naucolambë].
O. The women said that you have seen the great worm [ango] that was in the mountain, and that it was going to come to this place.
P. On the tenth day the Sun was bright, and we (incl.) were going to drink wine.

KEYS TO THE EXERCISES

Note: The Quenya lessons, including the exercises, are still being refined. In some cases, incomplete revisions have lead to discrepancies between the exercises and the corresponding keys. The author of this course hopes he has been able to weed out these errors, but if you suspect that some of the keys here provided do not really match the exercises, please download the most recent versions of both this Keys file and the relevant section of the course. If the discrepancy is seen to persist in the latest versions, please bring the problem to my attention (helge.fauskanger@nor.uib.no).

LESSON ONE

1. Marking the accented vowel or diphthong:

A. Alcar
B. Alcarë
C. Alcarinqua
D. Calima
E. Oronti
F. Únótimë
G. Envinyatar
H. Ulundë
I. Eäruilë
J. Ercassë

As for Christopher Lee's accentuation nai yarVAXëa RASSelya TALTuva notto-CARinnar, the words yarvaxëa and taltuva are correctly pronounced. However, rasselya should have been accented rassELya rather than RASSelya, and notto-carinnar should have been notto-carINNar rather than notto-CARinnar. Perhaps we are to assume that "Saruman" in this scene uses some special meter employed in magical invocations, discarding the normal stress rules?

2.
K. Ohtar: C (ach-Laut)
L. Hrávë: D (hr originally denoting unvoiced r, later becoming normal r)
M. Nahta: C (ach-Laut)
N. Heru: A (English-style breath-H, though in Valinorean Quenya it had been ach-Laut)
O. Nehtë: B (ich-Laut)
P. Mahalma: In early Exilic Quenya probably C (ach-Laut), but by the Third Age it had evidently become A (breath-H).
Q. Hellë: A (breath-H)
R. Tihtala: B (ich-Laut)
S. Hlócë: D (the group hl originally denoting unvoiced l, later becoming normal l)
T. Hísië: A (breath-H)

LESSON TWO

1. 
A. Horses
B. Either just "king", or "a king" with an indefinite article, depending on what English grammar demands in the context where the word occurs.
C. The horse
D. The horses
E. Kings
F. One people under one king.
G. The king and the queen.
H. Maidens

2.
I. Tasari
J. Eldar
K. I arani
L. Lier
M. I rocco nu i tasar.
N. Vendë ar tári.
O. I tári ar i vendi.
P. Anar ar Isil (probably not i Anar ar i Isil, since in Quenya the words denoting these celestial bodies seem to count as proper names, requiring no definite article)

LESSON THREE

1.
A. (Two) eyes, (natural pair of) eyes.
B. Two eyes (hen atta , referring to "two eyes" only casually related, like two eyes of two different persons, one eye from each. The dual  form hendu, on the other hand, refers to a natural pair of eyes.) 
C. Two trees.
D. Two trees (= alda atta, referring to any two trees. Aldu, on the other hand, refers to some kind of closely related pair of trees, like the Two Trees of Valinor in Tolkien's mythos.)
E. One man and one woman.
F. The stones.
G. Floors.
H. Mountains.  

2.
I. Cirya atta.
J. Ciryat.
K. Rancu (if the example peu "pair of lips" holds, the dual ending -u rather than -t is typically used in the case of bodyparts occurring in pairs, even where there is no d or t in the noun.)
L. Orontu (since oron "mountain" has the stem oront-, a t turning up in the word, the dual ending would be -u rather than -t)
M. Andu (ending -u rather than -t because of the d occurring in this word)
N. Aiwet.
O. Aiwë atta.
P. Neri ar nissi.

LESSON FOUR    

1.
A. A black horse.
B. Bright eyes (hendu = a natural pair of eyes).
C. Three dead men.
D. Beautiful birds.
E. A queen is a mighty woman.
F. The mountains are great.
G. Best interpreted "a king [is] mighty", the copula being left out and understood, but it could also mean "a mighty king" with a somewhat unusual word-order (an attributive adjective would more often come before the noun it describes: taura aran rather than aran taura).
H. The man and the woman are wise.

Theoretically at least, exercises A, C, and D could also be interpreted "black [is] a horse", "bright [are] eyes", "beautiful [are] birds", the copula being left out just as in Exercise G. But when the adjective comes immediately in front of the noun it describes, it must normally be assumed that it is used attributively and not predicatively. On the other hand, when the order is noun + adjective, as in G, a copula "is/are" may well be left out. 

2.
I. I ninquë ando.
J. Alta cirya.
K. I talan ná carnë.
L. Er morë sar ar ninqui sardi neldë. (Remember that the number er precedes its noun, whereas higher numbers follow. – It may be noted that the stem-form of sar “stone” may apparently be sarn-  as well as sard-, or at least Tolkien let the name Elessar “Elf-stone” have inflected forms in -sarn- in late material. If so, “three white stones” could also be ninqui sarni neldë.)
M. Sailë arani nar taurë neri.
N. I taura nér ar i vanya nís nar úmië.
O. Eldar nar vanyë.
P. Eldar nar vanya lië. (Notice that here, the adjective agrees in number with the singular noun lië "a people", which it describes attributively. It does not agree with the plural noun "Elves", as in the previous exercise.)

(In exercises K, M, N, O, P, the copula ná/nar may be left out and understood.)  

LESSON FIVE

1.
A. The woman is laughing.
B. The fattest Dwarf is eating.
C. The queen is watching the king.
D. The greatest mountain is mighty.
E. The man is summoning the most beautiful maiden.
F. The bird is singing.
G. The Dwarves are seizing the four Elves.
H. The mightiest king is wise.

2.
I. I nís tíra i amalta cirya.
J. I amúmië neri nar firini.
K. I Elda mápëa i parma.
L. Neri canta caitëar nu alda.
M. I ansaila Elda cendëa parma.
N. I aran ar i tári cendëat i parma. (I here assume that two subjects, at least two subjects denoting a logical pair like “the king and the queen”, will be followed by a dual verb in –t. If not, read cendëar.)
O. I aiwë atta lindëat. (Remember: nouns are not inflected for number when the numeral atta “two” follows, and the following verb is dual.)
P. I Naucor canta tírar aiwë.

Extra exercise:
Amairë, ancotya, amengwa, anfaica, anhaira, amírima, amalinta, ammelda, amorna, anquanta, amaraica, ansaila, amurda, anvarna, amyelwa.  

LESSON SIX

1. 
A. The man read the book.
B. The Dwarves ate.
C. The king summoned the queen.
D. A woman sang.
E. The maidens watched the Elf.
F. The five horses lay (/?were lying) under the big willow.
G. The stars shone.
H. The Dwarf saw a horse.

As suggested in F), it may be that it is also permissible to translate Quenya past tenses using the "was/were ...-ing" construction, e.g. B) "the Dwarves were eating", D) "a woman was singing", F) "the five horses were lying". However, Quenya may well have distinct verb forms for this meaning. Published material provides no clues in this matter.

2.
I. Nauco hirnë i harma.
J. I Elda quentë.
K. I rocco campë.
L. I aran mellë Eldar (or ...i Eldar with the article if the phrase "the Elves" is taken as referring to some particular Elves rather than the Elvish race in general)
M. Nér tencë lempë parmar.
N. I tári orontë.
O. I arani haryaner altë harmar.
P. I aran ar i tári tultaner Eldar canta ar Naucor lempë.

NOTE: In L have here used mellë as the past tense of mel- "love", letting it follow the best-attested pattern for the past tense of primary verbs ending in -l. In Tolkien's earliest material the past tense "loved" is actually given as mélë (PE12:60), but some Quenyaists would think it dubious that this form was valid at the time Tolkien wrote The Lord of the Rings. On the other hand, even late material features a few past tense-forms constructed by lengthening the stem-vowel and adding -ë, such as túlë "came". Hence a form like mélë "loved" could have been maintained, and it is only fair to point out the uncertainties to the student.

LESSON SEVEN

1.
A. Many Dwarves possess treasures.
B. The sun will rise and the birds will sing.
C. Six men will watch (/guard) the gate.
D. Every Man (= non-Elf human) will die.
E. All Men die.
F. A wise man reads many books.
G. Every star shines above the world.
H. The Elf seizes the Dwarf.

In A, B, E, F, and G, the aorist tense is used to describe various "general truths" that are more or less timeless. In H, the aorist is used to describe a momentary, duration-less action.

2.
I. Ilya Elda ar ilya Atan.
J. I Elda hiruva i Nauco.
K. I rocco capë or i Nauco.
L. I aran turë rimbë ohtari ar turuva ilya Ambar.
M.  I aran ar i tári cenduvar i parma.
N. I ohtar turë macil.
O. Ilyë rávi matir hrávë.
P. Enquë rávi mátar hrávë.

In K, the aorist describes a momentary, duration-less action. In L and N, the aorist (turë) describes a general characteristic or "habit" of an individual: the king (always) controls many warriors, the warrior (generally, habitually) wields a sword. In O, the aorist describes a "general truth" about lions, contrasting with  the present (continuative) tense in P (mátar = "are eating"), describing the ongoing activity of some particular lions instead.

LESSON EIGHT

1. 
A. The man has found the treasure.
B. The lions have eaten the flesh.
C. The king has summoned the queen.
D. The women have read the book.
E. The evil queen has seized the seven Dwarves.
F. You have written seven books.
G. I have spoken.
H. You have seen it.

2.
I. I nér utúlië.
J. I otso Naucor amátier.
K. I seldor ecénier rá imbi i aldar.
L. I Eldar enquë oroitier i Naucor otso.
M. I Nauco unurtië harma.
N. Alaitien [or, alaitienyë] i aran, an i aran elérië ilyë móli. 
O. Alantiel [or, alantielyë], ar ecénienyes.
P. Emétienyes.

LESSON NINE

1.
A. [The] shining moon is rising over the world.
B. The jumping Dwarf fell through the floor.
C. I can hear a singing maiden.
D. One man wielding one sword will not terrify the eight mighty warriors.
E. A thrall seizing a mighty man is not wise. 
F. The eight lions lying under the trees (a)rose, for the lions wanted to eat the men.
G. A lion cannot stop eating [/cease to eat] flesh.
H. The terrifying warrior stopped watching [/ceased to watch] the people, for the warrior was not wise. (Another possible interpretation: "stopped guarding" instead of "stopped watching".)

2.
I. I nér roitala i Nauco ná ohtar.
J. I aran mernë lelya.
K. I vendë úmë verya cenë i tári.
L. I lálala nissi lender mir i coa. 
M. I tolto lelyala Naucor polir hirë rimbë harmar.
N. Úmel(yë) laita i Elda, umil(yë) laita i Atan, ar úval(yë) laita i Nauco.
O. Merin(yë) lelya ter Ambar ar lerya ilyë lier.
P. Veryala nér lendë ter i ando ar mir i oron.

The key to Exercise K ("the maiden did not dare to see the queen") is the only possible translation using the vocabulary I have provided to far, but I cannot say for certain that cen- "to see" can also be used in the sense "to meet", which is how an English-speaking person would normally interpret this word used in such a context. But then "see" = cen- may of course be used in its most basic sense, so that i vendë úmë verya cenë i tári may be interpreted "the maiden did not dare to look at the queen".

LESSON TEN

1.
A. I love them deeply.
B. They sing beautifully, like (the) Elves sing.
C. The hidden treasure will not be found. (Possibly, the Quenya wording úva hirna / úva hírina would suggest: "...will not have been found", referring to some future situation.)
D. They want to find it swiftly.
E. You have two books, and finally you have read them.
F. I have really [/truly/actually] seen an Elf.
G. All nine gates are watched.
H. They did not want to do it, for seeing it was enough [/sufficed].

2.
I. Elendientë nuldavë ter i nórë. (Surely you understood that "have gone" was to be rendered by the perfect form of the verb lelya-, or did you start messing with lelyaina or something, desperate to bring in a separate word for "gone"? No need...)
J. I hostainë Eldar merner cenitas.
K. Técina lambë umë ve quétina lambë.
L. Ciryar lempë úmer farya; nertë farner.
M. Anwavë pustuvan [or, pustuvanyë] caritas.
N. Lintavë hostaneltë i ruhtainë Naucor nertë.
O. Teldavë cenuvalyet ve emériel(yë) cenitat.
P. Umiltë merë hlaritas.

The word order is certainly somewhat flexible; the adverbs in M, N, and O could probably also follow the verb (e.g. hostanentë lintavë for "they swiftly gathered"). Cf. my own key to I. But when an object or an infinitive is to follow, I find it slightly awkward to separate it from the finite verb by inserting an adverb between them. Of course, you can always have the adverb at the end of the sentence as well.

LESSON ELEVEN

1.
A. They found the dead warrior's sword. (Genitive of former possessor.)
B. The stars of heaven are shining. (Genitive of location: the stars are in heaven.)
C. I watched the woman's eyes (dual). (Partitive genitive: the woman's eyes are physically part of her.)
D. They shall see the King of Men and (of) all lands. (Genitive describing the relationship between a ruler and the ruled – people or territory.)
E. A house without floors is not a real house. (The preposition ú "without" is followed by genitive, hence ú talamion in Quenya.)
F. The queen's evil brothers want to rule the peoples of the world. (I tário úmië torni: genitive of family relationship. Ambaro lier: genitive of location – the peoples are in the world.)
G. The horns of the animals are big. (Partitive genitive, as in Exercise C above.)
H. The ten lions quickly ate the flesh of the horse. (I rocco hrávë "the horse's flesh" – genitive of source, the flesh coming from the horse. Notice that the noun rocco "horse" is unchanged in the genitive singular, since it ends in -o already.)  

2.
I. Menelo aiwi [or, (i) aiwi Menelo] cenuvar ohtari quëan imbi i altë síri. (Menelo aiwi "the birds of heaven" – genitive of location.)
J. I arano mól [or, (i) mól i arano] ulyanë limpë mir (i) amalta i yulmaron [or, mir i yulmaron analta]. (I arano mól "the king's thrall" – genitive denoting the relationship between the ruler and the ruled, or various relationships between people in general. Notice ulyanë as the past tense "poured" in the transitive sense. [I] analta i yulmaron or i yulmaron analta: "the biggest of the cups", partitive genitive – the biggest cup being one of all the cups mentioned. Cf. Tolkien's elenion ancalma "brightest of [/among] stars".)
K. I Eldo háno [or, (i) háno i Eldo] hostanë (i) parmar quëan elenion.  (I Eldo toron "the Elf's brother": genitive of family relationship. Notice that when the genitive ending -o is added to a noun like ending in -a, like Elda, it displaces this final vowel. (I) cainen parmar elenion "the ten books about stars": the genitive being used in the sense "about, concerning". Perhaps the word order elenion qëan parmar is also possible, but it feels less natural.)
L. (I) alta sírë i nórëo [or, i nórëo alta sírë] ullë mir cilya. ([I] alta sírë i nórëo " the great river of the land" – genitive of location. Notice ullë as the past tense "poured" in the intransitive sense; contrast transitive ulyanë in Exercise J above.)
M. Nér ú anto umë polë quetë. (The preposition ú is followed by genitive, but here it the genitive ending is "invisible", since the noun anto "mouth" ends in -o already.)
N. Ecénien (i) amalta ilyë orontion nu Menel. (Partitive genitive; cf. Exercise J above.) 
O. Merin hirë nórë ú altë lamnion ve rávi. (The preposition ú is followed by genitive; hence lamnion here.)
P. Cenuval(yë) laman ú rasseto. (Genitive after ú; rasseto dual genitive of rassë "horn". If dual forms denoting body-parts always take the ending -u – cf. Tolkien's peu "pair of lips" or hendu "two eyes" – perhaps the dual of rassë should rather be rassu, the genitive of which is perhaps rassuo. Tolkien's intentions cannot be reconstructed with full certainty. Unlike lips or eyes, horns do not necessarily come in pairs, so it is unclear whether a fossilized form like rassu rather than rasset is justifiable.)

LESSON TWELVE 

1. 
A. Both phrases may be rendered "the wine of the Elves". However, the genitive phrase i limpë Eldaron implies "the wine coming from the Elves", sc. wine somehow originating with or obtained from the Elves. On the other hand, the possessive phrase i limpë Eldaiva implies "wine owned by the Elves" at the time which is being considered, irrespective of the origin of the wine.
B. You have (/possess) a cup of gold. (Yulma maltava "cup of gold":  the possessive-adjectival case used in its "compositive" sense, denoting what something is made of.)
C. The horse of the Elf [/the Elf's horse] has fallen into the deep gorge. (I rocco i Eldava "the Elf's horse": possessive case used of current ownership. One could argue that Tolkienian Elves seem to be so close to their horses that to them, their steeds are more like family members than possessions, and then it would be more appropriate to use the genitive case: (i) rocco i Eldo or i Eldo rocco. But as I said in the Introduction, the "Elves" of these exercises are not necessarily Tolkienian Elves.)
D. Men of peace will not be warriors. (Neri séreva "men of peace": possessive-adjectival case used of a permanent characteristic.)
E. Great walls of stone hid the houses of the ten richest men of the city. (Rambar ondova "walls of stone": compositive -va. I coar i amalyë neriva quëan "the houses of the ten richest men": possessive case used of current ownership. [neri] i osto "[men] of the city": genitive of location, the men being in the city. Notice that the word osto is here inflected for genitive, though the ending -o is invisible since this noun already ends in -o. Cf. also Exercises L and N below.)
F. The house of the king's sister [or, the king's sister's house] is red. (In the phrase i coa nésava i arano,, the genitive i arano "the king's" is dependent on nésava "sister's", which possessive form in turn points back to i coa "the house".  The genitive refers to a family relationship, the possessive to the current ownership of the house.)
G. One of the thralls has seized the sword of the king. (Er i mólion "one of the thralls": partitive genitive; i macil i aranwa "the sword of the king": the possessive case used of current ownership. Of course, if the thrall runs away with the sword of the king, it eventually turns into i macil i arano instead, the genitive indicating former possession. If the rebellious thrall kills the king with his own sword, this action would produce the same effect immediately, the king instantly being reduced to a former possessor: I macil i aranwa enters the king's chest,, i macil i arano comes out through his back.)
H. The maiden's brother found all the treasures of the eleven Dwarves between the four horns of the white mountains. (I vendëo toron "the maiden's brother": genitive of family relationship; i harmar i Naucoiva minquë "the treasures of the eleven Dwarves": possessive case denoting current ownership. I rassi canta i ninqui orontion "the four horns of the white mountains", either partitive genitive if the horns are perceived as being part of the mountains, or genitive of location if the horns are thought of as being in the mountains.)

2. 
I. Síri limpeva uller mir i nero anto [or, mir (i) anto i nero]. (Síri limpeva "rivers of wine": compositive -va. I nero anto "the man's mouth": partitive genitive, the man's mouth being part of him. Also notice uller, not ulyaner, as the intransitive past tense of ulya- "to pour".)
J. I seldoron nésa [or, (i) nésa i seldoron] hostanë (i) nati i seldoiva ar lendë mir (i) coa i táriva. (The genitive phrase i seldoron nésa"the boy's sister" refers to a family relationship; the possessive forms seldoiva and táriva have to do with current ownership of the "things" and the "house", respectively.) 
K. One possibility: (I) muilë i nissiva varyanë alta harma maltava. (In the phrase harma maltava "treasure of gold", the -va case is used in the same sense as in Exercise B above – but "the secrecy of women" can be rendered in various ways. Using the possessive-adjectival case as suggested here, it refers to "the secrecy of the women" as a more or less permanent attribute of theirs. But one might also use the genitive, i nission muilë or (i) muilë i nission, focusing rather on the women's "secrecy" at the particular time in the past which is being related. One might even interpret it as a kind of subject genitive, "the women" being the ones who are secretive and thus the subjects of the secrecy.)
  L. One possibility: I ohtari minquë úmer polë varya (i) sérë i osto [or, i osto sérë], an alta mornië lantanë. (Rendering "the peace of the city" as i sérë i osto, using the genitive case, would focus on the "peace" of the "city" as its attribute at one specific time – the peace emanating from the city, so to speak. Conceivably it could also be interpreted as a genitive of location, the peace being in the city. Certainly one might also say (i) sérë i ostova, using the possessive case, but then we are rather talking about peace as a permanent attribute of the city, and the message of this sentence is that the peace did not prove to be quite permanent after all. But a Quenya-speaking Mayor, expressing a pious wish "may the peace of the city last forever", might well say ostova.)
M. One possibility: Lelyuvaltë ter nórë altë aldaiva ar rimbë ondoiva, an meriltë cenë (i) osto i taura ohtarwa. (Nórë altë aldaiva ar rimbë ondoiva "a land of great trees and [of] many rocks": the possessive-adjectival case describing characteristic features of the "land". (I) osto i taura ohtarwa is the most natural translation of "the city of the mighty warrior" if we imagine him to be still alive, somehow "owning" the city where he dwells. But of course we may also be talking about a long-dead warrior who has brought fame to the city where he once lived, and then it would be more natural to use the genitive case, denoting a former possessor: (i) osto i taura ohtaro or i taura ohtaro osto. This wording might also be appropriate if the "warrior" happens to have founded the city in question, since the genitive case may denote an originator – living or dead.) 
N. One possibility: Ramba muiléva varyanë (i) nurtaina malta i osto [or, i osto nurtaina malta], ar úmen hiritas. (Ramba muiléva "a wall of secrecy": the -va case is used in its compositive sense, the metaphorical wall being "made of" secrecy. Notice the lengthening of the final vowel in muilë "secrecy" when the ending -va is added, as seems to be characteristic of words with ui in their second-to-last syllable; cf. the attested example huinéva "of gloom". – If we translate "the hidden gold of the city" using a genitive as suggested here –  (i) nurtaina malta i osto – it would probably be a genitive of location: the "hidden gold" is in the "city". But if we take the word "city" as referring primarily  to the people of the city, we might rather use the possessive case of current ownership: i nurtaina malta i ostova.)
O. (I) nórë (i) Eldaiva ná nórë rimbë vanyë nativa; nórë ú Eldaron ná nórë morniéva, an i Atani i nórëo [or, i nórëo Atani] umir hlarë (i) alya lambë (i) Eldaiva. (Possibly Eldaiva should here receive the article i in both of its occurrences,  since the reference may not be to "Elves" as a race, but rather to "the" particular Elves living in a particular country. Anyhow, these possessive forms refer to current ownership of the land [nórë] and the language [lambë]. In the phrases nórë rimbë vanyë nativa "a land of many beautiful things" and nórë morniéva "land of darkness", the possessive-adjectival case describes characteristic features of the "land"; cf. Exercise M above. Notice the long vowel of  morniéva. Here the final -ë of mornië "darkness" is lengthened because the word ends in two short syllables.  – In the phrase ú Eldaron "without Elves", the preposition ú regularly governs the genitive case. – In accordance with Tolkien's usage in one late source, one might also use the genitive in the phrase "language of the Elves", hence Eldaron instead of Eldaiva, but this would contradict what Tolkien wrote elsewhere.)
P. I arano néso hostalë parmaiva Eldaron. (I arano néso "the king's sister's": the first genitive refers to a family relationship, but néso hostalë "sister's gathering" is an example of subject genitive: the king's sister is the subject carrying out the "gathering". Parmaiva "of books": the possessive-adjectival case here takes on the function of object genitive, the "books" being the objects of the "gathering". Eldaron "of Elves" or "about Elves": the genitive case is used in its most abstract sense of "about" or "concerning", as in the attested example Quenta Silmarillion = "the Story of the Silmarils".) 

LESSON THIRTEEN 

1. 
A. The man gave the woman a gift.
B. The sun gives light to the world.
C. We (inclusive) will find the treasure, and we (inclusive) will give it to the twelve Dwarves.
D. Eating flesh makes one fat, and we (inclusive) don't want fat bodies, for fat bodies are not beautiful.
E. We (exclusive) went into the city (in order) to find the wise women, for we (exclusive) wanted to see them.
F. A man having good ideas is wise and will give [or, bring] peace and joy to the city.
G. We (exclusive) have summoned them (in order) to speak of/about many things.
H. Drinking wine isn't good for one's body.

2.
I. Quen antanë i ohtaren alta macil. (Notice the helping vowel -e- intruding between ohtar and the ending -n, to avoid the impossible form **ohtarn.)
J. Carië coa i seldoin ná mára noa. (Here the gerund carië "making" takes both a direct and an indirect object – coa and i seldoin, respectively.)
K. Mahtalvë séren; mahtië umë anta i lien alassë, an ecénielvë i cala. 
L. Quetië i Eldalambë ná alta alassë Atanin. (Possibly alta alassë is not a perfect translation of "great joy", since the adjective alta primarily means "great = big" with reference to physical size – but we have no word for "great" in a less concrete sense.)
M. (I) ohtari i nórë atto [or, i nórë atto ohtari] mahtuvar i lient, ar lelyuvalmë ter alta mornië hirien cala.  (Alternatively "the two lands", not just "the [twin] peoples",  might also be expressed as a dual form here: i nóret, genitive i nóreto, instead of  i nórë atto. Notice again how the word atta “two” follows a “singular” or uninflected noun, and inflections for case are added to atta itself, like genitive atto in this instance.)
N. I neri arwë i mára limpëo merner yulmar sucien i limpë, ar i arano móli antaner i nerin yulmar yunquë maltava. (Notice genitive following arwa [here pl. arwë], hence limpëo.)
O. Merilmë lelya mir i osto lerien ilyë Atani ar antien (i) malta i aranwa i mólin. (Notice that while the phrase "we want to go" certainly expresses a purpose, "go" should here be rendered as a simple infinitive lelya, not as a gerund in dative, since **merilmë lelien = "we want [in order] to go" would make no sense. On the other hand, the "in order" test reveals that the verbs lerya- "to free" and anta- "to give" should appear as gerunds in dative, sc. lerien and antien: "We want to go into the city [in order] to free all Men and [in order] to give the gold of the king to the thralls.")
P. (I) rambar i osto [or, i osto rambar] nar altë; acárielvet varien i lië. (Varien: dative gerund of varya- "to protect".)

(In these keys we do not list all the possible variations in word order, like saying acárielvet i lië varien instead of acárielvet varien i lië.) 

LESSON FOURTEEN 

1.
A. We (inclusive) will go from the tower to the house. (Alternative interpretation: "out of the tower", "into the house".)
B. All Elves have passed [/disappeared] from the world.
C. The Dwarves have come from [or, out of] the mountains; they have gone to [or, into] the houses and are drinking our (incl.) wine.
D. The evil warriors will seize the gold of our (incl.) people [in order] to send our (incl.) treasures to a remote land.
E. The woman went away from my house and went to the river.
F. The first ship will come from the West.
G. One fears the lions [Quenya: "...feels fear from the lions"], for they have eaten the king of our (exclusive) people, and they will not go away from our (exclusive) land [or simply: "...will not leave our land".] (Since rá "lion" has the stem-form ráv-, and **rávllon is not a possible word, the plural ablative would presumably require a connecting vowel, which is -i- in the case of plural words: Hence we used rávillon as the pl. ablative of rá. Also notice lielmo as the genitive of lielma "our people".)
H. Nessimë said [or, says] to Calandil: "My son has disappeared from my room!"

2. 
I. Equë Calandil Nessimenna: "Yondolya elendië [or, oantië] et i coallo, an ilyë i seldor lender [or, oanter = "went away"] i ambonna." (The word et may be omitted, since the simple ablative i coallo can express "out of the house" by itself – but without et, the ablative might just as well be interpreted "[away] from the house".)
J. Menello Anar antëa cala Ambarelvan [dative!], ar i mornië avánië. (Perhaps Menelello with a connecting vowel -e- would also be a valid ablative form of Menel. Notice that "to our world" should in this context be a dative rather than an allative form; cf. Exercise B in Lesson Thirteen above. But perhaps allative Ambarelvanna would also be possible, the meaning being: "the Sun is giving [out] light [which is going] to our world". The dative and allative cases are closely related; the lay-out of the Plotz letter suggests that the dative in -n may have originated as a shorter variant of the allative in -nna.)
K. Equë Calandil i úmëa aranna: "Ementiel(yë) ohtarilyar i mindonna hirien yondonyar. Mólinya varyuva i seldor, ar úvaltë vanwë!" (Alternative allative forms of aran, mindon might be aranenna, mindonenna. Notice how the ending -nya always prefers -i- as its connecting vowel where one is required, hence "my thrall" = mólinya. On the other hand, ohtarilyar "your warriors" shows -i-only because the word is plural, cf. also mólilmar "our thralls" in Exercise N below. According to the system we have tried to make out, the singular forms would be ohtarelya "your warrior", mólelma "our thrall". – Possibly "my sons" could also be expressed as a contracted form yonyar [instead of yondonyar], but yonya "my son" [LR:61] may primarily be used as a form of address.)
L. I nér arwa i ciryaron mernë auta, ar ilyë i ciryar oanter Númenna.
M. Lendelmë sambenta, ar i nér i ambollon [or, ambollor] antanë yondolyan [dative!] alta macil, quétala: "I macil tulë haira nórello, (et) anhaira Númello." 
N. Ilyë aldar firner ar váner nórelvallo, ar equë Calandil ar Nessimë: "Mentuvalmë mólilmar hirien nórë arwa rimbë aldaron." (Notice that the verb equë does not receive the ending -r even where it has multiple subjects.)
O. I vendë quentë i lamnenna: "Rucin(yë) altë rasselyalto." (Since vendë is a common noun and not a proper name, the special verb equë should not be used here. As for the "fear" = "feel fear from" construction, cf. Exercise G above. An alternative allative form of laman "animal" might be lamanna as a contraction of laman-nna [instead of involving the stem-form lamn-, necessitating the addition of a connecting vowel before -nna can be added].)
P. Lenden(yë) sambelvanna hostien natinyar, an mernen(yë) anta hánonyan minya parmanya; i parma caitanë i talamenna. (Talamenna as the allative of talan "floor" takes into account the stem-form talam-, but perhaps talanna for talan-nna would also be an acceptable form.)

Additional exercises:

3. 
a) From our (incl.) houses
b) For my body
c) For our (incl.) bodies
d) Our (incl.) tongues (nominative)
e) To your (sg.) land
f) Our (excl.) things (nominative)
g) From your king
h) Of my thrall
i) Of my thralls
j) To our (incl.) cities
k) Of our people
l) Of your son
Translating dual forms of sambë "room" as "two-room apartment":
m) Our (excl.) two-room apartment (nominative)
n) For my two-room apartment
o) Of your two-room apartment
p) To our (incl.) two-room apartment
q) From your two-room apartment
r) Of my people
s) Of our (incl.) sons
t)  For your queen
u) Of our (excl.) peoples
v) Of my men
w) Of my man
x) For my boys
y) From our (excl.) [two sister] ships (dual)
z) Of our (dual excl.) son [= "of the son of the two of us"]

4. 
a) Ambolyannar 
b) Sérelman
c) Parmalyat
d) Mindonelyanna / mindonilyannar (Notice how -e- functions as a connecting vowel in the singular, whereas -i- is used in the plural.)
e) Tárilmava
f) Sellinyaiva
g) Sellinyallo (Notice how the ending -nya "my" prefers -i- as its connecting vowel even in the singular, as here following seler, sell- "sister". Cf. also exercises M, N, U, Y below.)
h) Annalvaron
i) Maltalvo
j) Alasselvan
k) Limpelyo
l) Ambarelyallo
m) Anarinyo
n) Aranyan (for aran-nya-n; alternatively araninyan with a connecting vowel inserted)
o) Yondolmava
p) Yulmalmaron
q) Aiwelyant
r) Rambalmanta
s) Rambalvalto
t) Nórelyallon [alternatively, nórelyallor]
u) Nésanyato
v) Harmalmaron
w) Roccolvannar
x) Coamman 
y) Hánonyan 
z) Aldalmannar

LESSON FIFTEEN

1.
A. (S)he [or, it] will come on the second day.
B. In the winter[,] many birds go away to dwell in [the] South; after the winter they go away from [the] South [or, leave the South] and come to our (incl.) land. 
C. His/her finding gold in the mountains gave joy to his/her people, for his/her finding it made his/her people rich.
D. In [the] second winter that (s)he lived in the house[,] (s)he found a treasure under the floor.
E. (S)he speaks our tongue, for (s)he dwells (/lives) in our (incl.) land.
F. (S)he says/said: "I saw a sword in the warrior's left hand." (Notice the shortening of the long vowel of má before a consonant cluster: locative massë. This follows the Tolkienian example mannar, but since I wrote this course, we have also seen examples of Tolkien maintaining a long vowel before a consonant cluster. See Appendices for further discussion.)
G. The man who found the treasure will hide the things which he has found in his two-room apartment (...if we continue to translate dual forms of sambë "room" as "two-room apartment", that is. The relative pronoun ya "which" here appears in the form yar, a plural ending being attached, because it refers back to the plural word "things": We assume that ya is inflected as a noun in -a.  This yar should not be confused with the attested form yar "to whom", which is not plural but has the old allative ending -r [as in mir "into"] attached.)
H. On the hill[,] (s)he sees the couple whom (s)he has watched from his/her house, and to whom (s)he gave his/her gift. (We assume that the relative pronoun ye would appear with dual endings when referring to a dual word: yet, dative yent.)

2.
I. Cennes veru i mallessë.
J. Hirnen(yë) i nís ye marë i coassë imbi i síri, ar tirnen(yë) péryat ar máryat; hyarya máryassë cennen(yë) parma.
K. Cennen(yë) yulmarya máryatsë, i yulma yallo ulyanes limpë mir antorya (or, antoryanna, using a simple allative instead of the preposition mir).
L. I marir i mindonissen yannar lelyëa [or, lelya] i nér nar ohtari. (Notice the word order: the verb immediately  follows yannar "to which",  just like it immediately follows yassen "in which" in our attested example in Namárië. But it may well be that ...yannar i nér lelyëa/lelya would be equally possible.)
M. Sucitarya i limpë úmë mára noa, an ya carnes apa sucitaryas úmë saila.  (Maybe the initial sucitarya could just as well be sucierya –  the pronominal ending being attached to the gerund of suc- "to drink".)
N. Apa oantelmë nórelmallo (i) Hyarmessë, ecénielmë rimbë Naucor i mallessen. 
O. I mindoni i ambossen nar altë; ye harya i amalta mindon, yallo polë quen cenë i Eldanórë, ná i amalya nér i ostossë. (...yallo polë quen cenë, literally "from which can one see": I assume that in a phrase like polë cenë "can see", with a finite verb followed by an infinitive, it is only the finite verb that is relocated to immediately follow a relative pronoun like yallo. But we lack attested examples, of course; perhaps it should be yallo polë cenë quen with the subject following the entire verb phrase. And for all I know,  yallo quen polë cenë with an "English" word order may also be permissible.)
P. Lië yó aran ná saila maruva séressë mára nóressë ya meluvaltë núravë. (If ya can really be inflected in the same way as a noun in -a, as suggested by the example yassen, the genitive "whose" would in the singular be yó – the group -ao being simplified to a long ó. Compare Tolkien's word tó 'thence', for older ta-o = 'that-of' or 'that-from'.)

LESSON SIXTEEN 

1.
A. (S)he has come from the East on a white horse. (Of course, the instrumental form in -nen does not really mean "on" but implies  "by means of" – the horse being identified as the means of travel. It is not entirely obvious how rocconen is best translated in English, so the precise wording of the translation is unimportant as long as the student clearly grasps the meaning of the instrumental form itself. One might well translate: "...riding a white horse", though no element actually meaning "riding" is present.)
B. The man wounded the lion with a spear, and he said: "Don't eat my son!"
C. We (excl.) said to the Elf: "Our (incl.) friendship is renewed by your gift!"
D. On the third day (s)he said to the maiden: "Do what you want!" (...ya merilyë = "[that] which you want".) 
E. One cannot find a treasure hidden by Dwarves, for a Dwarf loves deeply the gold that he possesses.
F. The man is wounded by [the] horns (dual) of the animal; wish that he will not die! (literally: "be it that he will not die!" Possible, but rather less probable interpretation: "...that it will not die!" – referring to the animal! If the ending -s is to cover both "he", "she" and "it", one can't always be quite certain where the sympathies of the speaker really lie...)
G. (S)he is singing with joy (/because of joy).
H. Go to the city and say to the mighty queen: "May you protect our (incl.) land from the evil warriors!" (Nai varyuvalyë nórelva... = literally "be it that you will protect our land...")

NOTE ON EHTË "SPEAR": In exercise B, I used ehtenen as the instrumental form of this noun. In the Etymologies, Tolkien first derived this word from EKTE, but according to a note by the editor, a variant reading EKTI was also introduced. If we accept this latter version,  so that Quenya ehtë "spear" is to be derived from primitive Elvish ekti, the Quenya word should probably have the stem-form ehti- so that the instrumental form would be ehtinen rather than ehtenen. But the plural instrumental form should probably be ehtínen (as in Exercise K below) no matter which "etymology" we prefer, since ehtínen could represent both ehti+inen (two short i's merging into one long í) and ehte+inen (ei regularly becoming long í).

2.
I. Eques [or, quentes] i Nauconna: "Á racë i yulma nambanen!"
J. Ciryanen oanten(yë) haira nórenna Rómessë.
K. I osto ná varyaina altë rambainen, ar ohtari i mahtar ehtínen umir polë racë i rambar.
L. Equë Calandil harna yondoryanna: "Áva firë!" (Alternatively: Calandil quentë harna yondoryanna... As discussed in the lesson, it may be that the passive participle of harna- "to wound"  is simply harna rather than ?harnaina, since the verbal stem already contains the element -na which is closely related to the longer ending -ina.)
M. Nai tárilya hiruva i yána airinta (i) Eldainen!
N. I aran ar i tári lender coanyanna ar envinyatáner nilmelma altë annainen.
O. Mapas i seldo máryanten, ar eques [or, quetis]: "Áva lelya i sírenna!"
P. I nís ye marë i nelya coassë i mallessë quentë i Eldanna: "Á tirë i neri i túlar i yánallo ya cenil(yë) i ambossë, i lelyar Rómenna."

LESSON SEVENTEEN

1.
A. This thing is the sword found by Calandil [the] Tall. (Calandil Hallanen "by C. [the] Tall": notice how the case ending for instrumental is added to the last word of the phrase.)
B. All animals have disappeared from this land (nórë sinallo = "from this land"; again notice how the case ending, here for ablative, is added to the last word –  the demonstrative sina "this". However, nórello sina would perhaps be equally possible.)
C. A snake wounded his/her right arm, and (s)he said: "Wish that all snakes will [or, would] die!" (Rancurya = "his [or, her] arm"; notice how ranco "arm" appears in the form rancu- before endings, since it is a U-stem. Possibly, the dual "pair of arms" would also have the form rancu, but if that form were intended here, we would also see the extra dual marker -t following the ending -rya. Cf. máryat = "her (pair of) hands" in Namárië.)
D. That night, they found that Dwarf on the hill over there [literally: on yonder hill]. (Lómë yanassë = "in that night", but English would simply say "that night" in such a context. Yana may signify "that" of something that existed formerly or in the past, and since the reference is to a night in the past, this word is appropriate here – if we have reconstructed Tolkien's intentions correctly! Cf. also hrívë yanassë "in/during that winter" in exercise H below. Nauco tana: "that Dwarf", the word tana "that" simply focusing on individual identity. Ambo entassë: "on yonder hill, on the hill over there": the word enta apparently means "that" with emphasis on spatial position.) 
E. The tall ships have passed away north(wards); those ships will not come to the lands of (the) South. (Ciryar tanë "those ships": we surmise that tana "that" can have the plural form tanë "those", the demonstrative behaving like an adjective.)
F. On the fourth day, that queen died by [/from] the poison of a snake. (Tári yana: "that queen" of a queen who is dead, yana being used of something that is past – but "that queen" could probably also be tári tana, merely focusing on personal identity.)
G. The strong arms of the men from (the) North can seize the spears from fighting warriors. (Ohtari mahtalallon "from fighting warriors": notice how the word ohtari "warriors" receives only the simplest plural ending, normally associated with the nominative case, but the plural ablative ending -llon added to the participle mahtala "fighting" indicates that the whole phrase is in the ablative case. – The word order mahtala ohtarillon would be equally possible: Here the ablative ending is added to the noun "warriors", since it is now the last word of the phrase.)
H. That winter, they lived (/dwelt) in the fourth house of that road (/street). (Hrívë yanassë: locative "during/in that winter"; cf. Exercise D above. Mallë tano "of that road", genitive of mallë tana "that road" – the genitive ending -o displacing a final -a as usual.) 

2.
I. Á tirë Nauco tana, ar áva tirë Elda sina! (Alternatively Nauco enta = "yonder Dwarf" = "that Dwarf over there".)
J. Nórë ú angwion ná mára nórë, an rimbë Atani ifírier angusangwanen. (Ú angwion "without snakes": as the student hopefully remembers, the preposition ú "without" governs the genitive case. Angusangwanen "by snake-poison": notice how the U-stem noun ango "snake" appears as angu- in a compound.)
K. I cantëa lómissë cennen(yë) ruhtala ohtar mallë tanassë, ar ortanen(yë) rancunyat. (Alternatively mallë entassë = "on yonder road", "on that road [over there]". Rancuryat "my arms" is here unmistakably dual, because of the dual ending -t following the pronominal ending -nya "my". Compare/contrast Exercise C above.)
L. Nai Calandil Hallo polda yondo [or, ...i polda yondo Calandil Hallo] tuluva nórë sinanna, an varyuvas ostor sinë yassen marilvë! (As in Exercise A above, the case ending is added to the last word of the phrase Calandil Halla "Calandil [the] Tall", and as in the attested example Elendil Vorondo "of Elendil the Faithful [Elendil Voronda]", the genitive ending displaces a final -a.)
M. Mindon enta ná i cantëa mindon carna [or, cárina] Eldainen nórë sinassë.
N. Parmar tanë nar vanwë; avánieltë sambelyallo.
O. Aurë entassë cenuval(yë) yondolya. (Alternatively aurë tanassë, but enta can refer to something that lies in the future, and as is evident from the phrase "shall see", the reference is here to a future day.)
P. Aurë yanassë túleltë oron entallo ar lender coa sinanna. (Alternatively aurë tanassë again, but yana can refer to something that lies in the past, and as is evident from the past tense verb "came", the reference is here to a day in the past.)

Insofar as the system of adding case endings to the "last declinable word" is not necessarily obligatory, the endings could probably be added to the relevant nouns as well, e.g. mallessë tana (or, enta) rather than mallë tanassë (or, entassë) for "on that road" in Exercise K.  til hit

LESSON EIGHTEEN

1.
A. They have come to see us, not to see thee.
B. May you dream about Elves! (Wish that you will dream about Elves!)
C. Three men will go thither, and the Dwarves will watch them, for the men possess a treasure that is greater than [lit. "great beyond"] gold.
D. On the sixth day they felt moved to come to me. [Lit. "...(it) impelled for them to come to me."]
E. The sixth king of the land is wiser than ["wise beyond"] the fifth king.
F. (S)he expanded his/her house, making it [or, that] the biggest house of the street.
G. You did it for them; you did not do it for us. (Alternatively, "you made it for them; you did not make it for us": Car- covers both "do" and "make".)
H. We saw you in the gorge under us, for you fell into it.

2.
I. Forya rancunya ná polda lá hyarya rancunya.
J. Á tulta te ninna!
K. I urqui tírar ni, an rucin(yë) tiello.
L. Lá tuluvalmë cenien tye i lómissë.
M. Lá óluva i seldon urquion.
N. I nís atta quentet: "Aranelya lá mernë anta ment i  nati mapainë melto ohtariryainen."
O. I nér pálula coarya cára ta carien rimbë sambi ilyë natiryain.
P. I enquëa aurë nauva mára lá i lempëa aurë, ar lá oruva men auta.

Other word-orders would apparently also be possible, such as prefixing some independent pronouns to verbs: K) ni-tírar rather than tírar ni, L) tye-cenien rather than cenien tye, N) ment-anta rather than anta ment, O) ta-cára rather than cára ta, P) men-oruva rather than oruva men. 

Q. From us (exclusive). To you (informal dual).
R. For you (formal singular). For them (or, those).
S. In it. To us (inclusive).
T. Of him/her. From you (plural).
U. By them. To me.

V. Tain.
W. Mello.
X. Lent.
Y. Túnen
Z. Nin.

LESSON NINETEEN

1.
A. Who lived [or, "dwelt"] in the house ten years ago, when I did not live in it? 
B. What can we [inclusive] do?
C. Give it to me, and don't hide it from me!
D. Who did you see on the seventh day?
E. They will give all the gifts to me and not to you!
F. What did the men find in the land beyond the mountains?
G. How will you be able to lift the great stone when I could not do it?
H. Our sister lives in that (yonder) house; we live in the eighth house in this street. You (-ldë, pl.) come and see our house!

2.
I. Man acárië ta?
J. Mana elyë hirnë i otsëa sambessë írë lendel(yë) tanna?
K. Írë elyë utúlië, inyë merë auta!
L. Ámen antal i limpë! or: Aldë men anta i limpë!
M. Á antat i limpë elmen ar lá i ohtarin! (or: Alyë/atyë anta i limpë ..., with -lyë or -tyë for singular 'you' added to the imperatie particle)
N. I otsëa ohtar utúlië i altë orontillon (or, -llor) pella.
O. I toltëa ando pella elyë hirnë alta harma; elmë i túler apa lye úmer hirë [or, lá hirner] nat! (Notice that the "who" of the relative sentence "we who came" is translated by means of the relative pronoun i: The word man denotes a different kind of "who", used in actual questions.)
P. Manen i úmië Naucor hirner te [or, te-hirner] auri otso yá?

LESSON TWENTY

1.
A. You [or, emphatic you] are a Dwarf, not an Elf. (Elyë Nauco: the copula "are" is left out and understood. Evidently nalyë Nauco would have been a possible alternative.)
B. I saw that the man's arm was broken.
C. The king was mighty, but the queen was wiser than the king.
D. Did you know that under the house [there] is a hidden treasure?
E. May I leave [literally, go from] this place?
F. Don't drink, for [there] is poison in your cup!
G. Were you here on the tenth day? 
H. We (excl.) know that [there] is a secret room in this house, but we have not found it, and until we find it we shall not know what is in the room. 

2.
I. "I was rich" can be translated in several ways. One solution would be to leave out the copula and use an independent pronoun (ni or inyë) for "I": Ni alya or inyë alya. Of course, this may just as well mean "I am rich", since there is no tense-marker. If we want to use an explicit verb "was", pronominal endings are to be added to the form ane-, hence anen (or, anenyë) alya.
J. I aran quentë [or perhaps equë]: "Lá lertal(yë) lelya i nómenna yallo utúliel(yë)", mal istan(yë) i lelyuvan(yë) tanna. (Alternative translation of "you may not go": umil(yë) lerta lelya.)
K. Istan(yë) cenda, mal lá polin(yë) cenda i morniessë, ar i calmar nar rácinë. Alternative translation of "I cannot read": umin(yë) polë cenda. Notice the difference between ista- "can" = "know how to" and pol- "can" = "be physically able to": The speaker knows how to read, but is unable to read in the dark.)
L. Istalvë i ëar Eldar.
M. Ma marneltë sinomë tenna i nertëa loa írë i ohtari túler?
N. Istalmë i sinter i neri quetë i Eldalambë, mal lá i Naucolambë.
O. I nissi quenter i ecéniel(yë) i alta ango ye engë i orontessë, ar i tulumnes nómë sinanna.
P. I quainëa auressë Anar nánë (or, né) calima, ar sucumnelvë limpë.